WORKS  MANAGEMENT  LIBRARY 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


THEIR  ARRANGEMENT  AND 
CONSTRUCTION 


BY 

CHARLES    DAY 


NEW  YORK 

THE  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE 

1911 


Copyright,   1911 
By  JOHN  B.  DUNLAP 


INTRODUCTION 

The  inclusion  of  a  volume  upon  works  construc- 
tion in  a  library  of  "Works  Management"  is  a  pur- 
poseful recognition  of  the  fact  that  efficiency  and 
economy  in  manufacturing  must  consider  much  more 
than  the  mere  operation  of  the  plant  in  which  the 
processes  of  production  are  carried  on.  The  fac- 
tors considered  by  Mr.  Day — the  arrangement  and 
construction  of  industrial  works — are  indeed  pri- 
mary. They  concern  the  organic  constitution  of  the 
factory,  and  hence  are  of  more  potential  importance 
even  than  systems  of  management,  which  concern 
functional  conditions.  Functional  disorders,  even  if 
severe,  may  be  reduced  by  treatment ;  but  an  organic 
inefficiency  embodied  in  the  design  and  structure  of 
the  plant  itself  is  incurable,  and  is  imposed  in  de- 
pendent sequence  upon  all  later  operations. 

Mr.  Day's  development  of  the  subject  is  thor- 
oughly adequate  to  its  importance.  His  extension  of 
the  scientific  method  into  this  relatively  new  field  is 
unique.  He  defines  for  the  first  time,  in  permanent 
form,  the  principles  and  the  practical  precepts  of 
scientific  plant  construction.  His  work,  much  of 
which  appeared  first  in  the  pages  of  THE  ENGINEER- 
ING MAGAZINE,  has  been  developed  by  a  true  evolu- 
tion, following  scientific  lines  of  progress.  It  is 
guided  by  intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject  and 
directed  by  high  ideals.  It  combines  the  interest 
of  scientific  pioneering  with  the  certainty  and  author- 
ity of  conclusion  that  characterize  the  master  of  a 
specialty.  THE  EDITOR. 

1 


215156 


PREFACE 

When  conquest  was  for  spoil  and  slaves,  the  con- 
querors came  to  regard  manual  effort  a  disgrace. 
Until  within  a  century  the  army,  church,  medicine 
and  law  were  the  respected  occupations;  manufac- 
tures and  trades  constituted  a  despised  class. 

With  steam  to  supersede  the  slave  and  serf  came 
the  new  era  of  industrialism.  The  iron-masters,  ship- 
builders, spinners,  weavers,  and  engineers,  through 
their  surprising  accomplishment,  took  rank  with  the 
professions;  they  were  seen  to  be  men  of  the  great- 
est ability;  they  attained  to  wealth  and  important 
positions  in  the  government  of  nations. 

Now  their  successors  are  bettering  their  methods, 
mechanical,  manual  and  systematic;  they  have  at- 
tained vastly  greater  efficiency,  until  the  judgment 
of  the  scientific  worker  is  seen  to  be  indispensable. 

We  are  ever  struggling  against  tradition ;  but  so 
great  is  the  triumph  that  "Business"  now  ranks  with 
the  "Professions/7  being  no  longer  imitative,  or 
"craft,"  but  the  ability  to  utilize  all  inventions  and 
knowledge  extant,  with  constant  individual  additions 
and  eager  appropriation  of  all  advances. 

During  this  development  each  stage  presented  for 
solution  certain  particular  problems.  These  were 
broad  in  the  beginning,  but  have  constantly  become 
more  specific,  there  being  reserved  for  our  day  the 
detailed  refinements  compelled  by  competitive  con- 
ditions, arising  from  the  collective  activities  of  na- 
tions now  engaged  principally  in  industrial  pursuits. 

A  striking  example  of  the  methods  brought  about 
by  these  conditions  is  the  latest  manner  of  arrang- 

3 


4  PREFACE 

ing  and  planning  industrial  plants,  based  upon  a 
logical  scientific  method  of  analysis  which  recog- 
nizes no":  only  all  physical  means  available,  but  those 
more  subtle  factors  having  to  do  with  the  human 
element — the  men  and  women  upon  whom  all  in- 
dustrial undertakings  are  dependent.  It  is  with 
these  problems  that  this  book  deals. 

Chapters  I  to  VIII,  inclusive,  are  founded  upon 
a  series  of  lectures  delivered  before  the  Graduate 
School  of  Business  Administration,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  the  engineering  students  at  Columbia 
University.  They  have  to  do  largely  with  the  enun- 
ciation of  broad  industrial  principles  and  a  defini- 
tion of  the  manner  in  which  the  arranging  and  plan- 
ning of  industrial  plants  should  be  conducted  to  ar- 
rive at  the  most  satisfactory  incorporation  of  these 
principles.  One  of  these  chapters  is  devoted  to 
a  fairly  complete  exposition  of  the  use  of  the  rout- 
ing diagram  as  a  basis  for  the  laying  out  of  indus- 
trial properties. 

Having  dealt  with  broad  principles,  the  subject  is 
considered  in  a  more  specific  manner,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  group  of  plants  was  selected  whose  pre- 
dominating function  is  the  working  of  metals. 

Chapter  IX  treats  briefly  of  certain  of  the  more 
important  problems  that  enter  directly  into  the 
metal-working  trades,  and  particularly  machine-shop 
work.  The  object  in  discussing  machine-tool  opera- 
tion and  the  administration  of  machine-shop  work 
is  to  exemplify  that  kind  of  detail  knowledge  which 
should  be  possessed  by  engineers  who  arrange,  plan, 
and  construct  industrial  properties.  The  charts  ac- 
companying the  discussion  upon  motor  drives  were 
published  previously  in  a  paper  presented  before 
the  International  Electrical  Congress  at  St.  Louis, 


PREFACE  5 

and  are  reproduced  by  permission  of  the  officers  of 
that  Congress. 

Chapter  X  includes  descriptions  of  the  principal 
points  of  interest  presented  by  a  number  of  plants 
selected  as  illustrating  the  trend  of  modern  practice. 
They  exemplify  results  secured  when  the  problems 
of  planning  and  building  are  approached  in  a  logi- 
cal and  thorough  manner,  and  it  is  through  the  cour- 
tesy of  the  owners  that  this  material  was  made 
available. 

Chapters  XI  and  XII  bear  upon  the  relationship 
of  client  and  engineer.  Many  industrial  managers 
are  in  full  accord  with  the  principles  that  are  enun- 
ciated in  Chapters  I  to  X,  yet  are  at  loss  to  know 
how  to  secure,  for  their  own  benefit,  the  economies 
resulting  through  the  application  of  these  very  prin- 
ciples. 

I  desire  to  express  my  indebtedness  to  my  asso- 
ciates who  aided  in  the  preparation  of  this  book,  and 
especially  to  my  father,  Eichard  Day,  whose  assist- 
ance and  constant  interest  have  contributed  materi- 
ally to  such  merit  as  it  may  possess. 

CHARLES  DAY. 
December,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.  GENERAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  WORK 
Nature  of  Industrial  Plants — Influence  of 
Manufacturing-Plant  Design  upon  Efficiency  of 
Operation — Rapid  Industrial  Expansion  Makes 
the  Building  Problem  More  Important  and  More 
Complex — Preliminaries  to  Factory  Construc- 
tion— Relations  of  the  Industrial  Engineer  to 
the  Problem — Co-ordinating  the  Work  of  Special- 
ists—Classifications of  Work  Incident  to  the 
Planning  and  Building  of  Industrial  Plants — 
Preliminary  Service;  Its  Seventeen  Sub- 
divisions— Financing  and  Its  Treatment — The 
Ten  Sub-divisions  of  the  Work  of  Preparing  De- 
tailed Plans — The  Six  Sub-divisions  of  Construc- 
tion and  Installation — The  Three  Sub-divisions 
of  the  Work  of  Occupation  and  Commencement 
of  Operation  11 

CHAPTER  II.     DETERMINATION  OF   SPECIFIC  REQUIRE- 
MENTS 

Various  Governing  Motives  and  Their  Effect 
in  the  Building  of  Industrial  Plants — Determin- 
ing Fundamental  Principles  and  Specific  Re- 
quirements of  a  New  Plant — Considering  Lead- 
ing Features  of  Similar  Establishments — Deter- 
mining Immediate  Machinery  Requirements — 
Determining  Geographic  Location  of  Site — Deter- 
mining Approximate  Arrangement  of  Equipment 
and  Processes — Determining  Floor  Areas  for 
Present  and  Future  Requirements — Apportion- 
ing Departments  to  Ground  or  Upper  Stories — 
Determining  Necessary  Railroad  and  Trucking 
Facilities — Determining  the  Total  Property 
Areas 24 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III.     SELECTION  OF  THE   SITE  AND  DEFINI- 
TION OF  BUILDING  AND  EQUIPMENT  FEATURES 

Selection  of  the  Property — Preparation  of  Al- 
ternate Departmental  Layouts — Decision  as  to 
Type  of  Buildings — Preparation  of  Revised 
Layout  and  Outline  Drawings — Preparation  of 
the  Classified  Estimate  of  Cost — Determination 
of  Resultant  Fixed  Charges  and  of  the  Ability 
of  the  Business  to  Carry  the  Investment — Revi- 
sion of  Layouts  to  Meet  Financial  Limita- 
tion^— Preparation  of  Data  for  Final  Plans 47 

CHAPTER  IV.     DETAILED  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Differences  of  Procedure  Necessitated  by  Dif- 
fering Characters  and  Purposes  of  Various 
Plants — Preparation  of  Plans  and  Specifications 
for  Special  Machinery — For  Power  Generation, 
Transmission,  etc. — For  Lighting,  Heating,  Ven- 
tilating, and  Sanitary  Arrangements — For  Fire- 
Prevention  Apparatus — For  the  Complete  Build- 
ings to  Harmonize  with  Preceding  Sections — 
For  Yard  Provisions — Preparation  of  Contracts 
for  Proper  Protection  to  All  Parties 64 

CHAPTER   V.      CONSTRUCTION    WORK    AND    INSTALLA- 
TION OF  EQUIPMENT 

Customary  Methods  of  Securing  Proposals — 
Advantages  of  Competent  Industrial-Engineering 
Advice — Selection  of  Responsible  Bidders  and 
Obtaining  of  Bids — Tabulation  of  Bids,  Confer- 
ences and  Letting  of  Contracts — Superintendence 
of  Building  Construction  and  Yard  Work — 
Superintendence  of  Installation  of  Service 
Equipment  and  Machinery — Checking  Work  and 
Approving  Invoices — Certifying  as  to  Contracts — 
Functions  of  the  Engineering  Organization — 
Methods  of  Remuneration — Their  Influence  on 
Speed  of  Completion  79 

CHAPTER    VI.      PERIOD    OF    OCCUPATION    AND    COM- 
MENCEMENT OF  OPERATION 

The  Functions  of  the  Industrial  Engineer  at 
This  Stage — Moving  Equipment  and  Accessories 
from  the  Old  Plant  to  the  New— The  Correction 
of  Minor  Discrepancies  Proved  by  Operation — 


CONTENTS 

Training  Administrators  and  Operatives  for 
Efficient  Use  of  New  Facilities— The  Services  of 
Specialists  in  Industrial  Management 101 

V  CHAPTER  VII.     ROUTING;  A  PRIME  FACTOR  IN  LAY- 
OUT 

Familiarity  with  Manufacturing  Requirements 
the  First  Requisite — An  Elemental  Form  of 
Routing  Diagram — The  Routing  Problem  in  a 
Piano  Factory — A  Graphic  Record  of  the  Rout- 
ing of  Product  in  Multiple-Story  Buildings- 
How  the  Problem  Is  Worked  Out  in  a  Hat  Fac- 
tory— A  Specific  Problem  Discussed  by  the  Aid 
of  Colored  Charts — Typical  Considerations  Af- 
fecting the  Layout  and  Routing  of  Materials — 
The  Routing  Problem  in  an  Axle  Factory — The 
Layout  Illustrated  and  Discussed — Work-Dis- 
patching as  an  Adjunct  to  Industrial  Adminis- 
tration   109 

CHAPTER  VIII.     METAL-WORKING  PLANTS 

Special  Applications  of  the  Foregoing  Prin- 
ciples to  Engineering  Industries — Their  "Well- 
Defined  Characteristics — Three  Characteristic 
Groups  Distinguished — The  Special  Features  of 
Each  as  to  Material,  Equipment,  Buildings, 
Labor,  Administration — Light  Manufacturing 
Work  Considered  in  Detail — Heavy  Machine 
Shops  and  the  Considerations  Affecting  Their 
Design  and  Construction — General  Machine 
Works  and  Their  Peculiar  Requirements — A 
Comparative  Resume  135 

CHAPTER  IX.     MACHINE  SHOPS  AND  THEIR  SPECIFIC 
REQUIREMENTS 

The  Primary  Object  of  Machine-Shop  Arrange- 
ment— The  Machine-Shop  Problem;  Removing 
Metal  Chips — Change  in  Equipment  Occasioned 
by  High-Speed  Steel— The  Tool  Room;  The 
Starting  Point  for  Standardization — Modern 
Tool-Room  Practice — Specific  Examples — Ma- 
chine-Tool Equipment  and  Its  Influence  on  De- 
sign— The  Effect  of  Electric  Driving — Method 
of  Analysis  to  Determine  Specific  Require- 
ments— Factors  Governing  Horse  Power  Re- 


10  CONTENTS 

quired  for  Different  Types  of  Machines— The 
Principal  Items  to  be  Considered— Diagrams  and 
Discussion — Conclusions  181 

CHAPTEB  X.    MODEKN  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

A  Brief  Discussion  of  Specific  Examples  of 
Scientific  Arrangement — The  Wagner  Electric 
Manufacturing  Company's  Plant — Characteristics 
of  Its  Product — The  Processes — The  Design  Il- 
lustrated and  Described — The  Orenstein-Arthur 
Koppel  Plant — A  Layout  to  Secure  Low  Over- 
head Expense — The  Cincinnati  Bickford  Tool 
Shops — A  Definite  Adaptation  to  the  Conditions 
of  Machine-Tool  Building — Factory  of  the 
American  Optical  Co. — A  Progressive  Develop- 
ment for  Varied  and  Light  Manufacturing 218 

CHAPTER  XL     VALUE  OF  AN  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZA- 
TION TO  THE  PROJECT 

The  Fundamental  Requirements  of  Plant  Lay- 
out— The  Need  of  Skilled  Functional  Direc- 
tion— How  This  Is  Supplied  by  a  Specialized 
Industrial  Engineering  Organization — Why  the 
Ordinary  Drafting  Department  Is  Unfitted  for 
the  Task — True  Economy  Is  Served  by  Employ- 
ing Engineering  Specialists 2G5 

CHAPTER  XII.     COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  AND 
CONSTRUCTION  SERVICE 

The  Necessary  Cost  of  Thorough  Preliminary 
Work — Overhead  Expenses  of  an  Engineering 
Organization  and  Their  Ratio  to  Productive 
Labor — The  Fair  Value  of  a  Specialist's  Time — 
Inadequacy  of  an  Architect's  Percentage  for  En- 
gineering Work — The  Proper  Basis  for  a  Rea- 
sonable Commission  278 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS:  THEIE  AE- 
EANGEMENT  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

THEIR    ARRANGEMENT    AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

CHAPTER   I 
GENERAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  WORK 

TNDUSTEIAL  PLANTS  have  to  do  broad- 
J-  ly  with  the  manufacture  of  articles  for 
commerce,  and  the  problems  that  must  be 
taken  into  account  when  building  new  plants 
relate  to  the  use  of  machinery,  the  provision 
of  shelter,  the  management  of  labor,  and  all 
other  economic  conditions  that  affect  the 
manufacturing  and  marketing  of  the  output. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  this  and  certain  of  the 
following  chapters  to  deal  with  the  more  im- 
portant factors  that  compose  these  main 
headings ;  and  as  only  a  comparatively  small 
group  of  men  would  be  interested  in  the  de- 
tail considerations  presented  by  a  given  busi- 

11 


12  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

ness,  an  effort  will  be  made  to  convey  the 
scope  of  the  problem  as  relating  to  industries 
generally,  and  to  point  out  the  method  of 
attack  that  is  necessary  in  any  case  for  its 
proper  solution.  Therefore,  the  discussion 
will  have  to  do  with  matters  that  are  com- 
mon, to  some  extent,  to  the  building  of  all 
industrial  plants,  whether  it  be  one  for  the 
manufacture  of  machine  tools  or  automobiles, 
for  the  preservation  of  food  products  or  for 
making  carpet  or  cement  or  pottery,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Entirely  new  enterprises  usually  have  a 
small  beginning,  manufacturing  space  being 
rented  in  a  building  that  substantially  meets 
the  requirements,  or  a  small  plant  being  built 
that  would  hardly  come  within  the  class  of 
enterprises  we  have  under  consideration. 
Large  industries  are  almost  always  the  re- 
sult of  a  gradual  growth ;  so  that,  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  new  machinery  and  buildings, 
if  at  all  extensive,  are  either  additions  to 
existing  plants  or  are  provided  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  a  business  formerly  conducted 
elsewhere. 

Until  recently  industrial  managers  were 
too  prone  to  consider  that  the  work  incident 
to  the  building  of  plants  and  factories  had 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   WORK  13 

no  intimate  bearing  upon  their  future  opera- 
tion. They  assumed  that  the  degree  of  suc- 
cess attainable  through  conducting  an  indus- 
trial business  depended  upon  the  efficiency 
with  which  it  was  managed,  and  failed  to  ap- 
preciate the  limitations  that  can  be  perma- 
nently imposed  during  the  building  period. 
This  statement  is  borne  out  by  the  large 
number  of  concerns  that  have  had  to  labor 
under  excessive  investment  charges  or  ad- 
verse manufacturing  conditions,  brought 
about  possibly  through  the  initial  selection  of 
unsuitable  types  of  buildings,  or  because  it 
was  necessary  to  demolish  good  structures  in 
order  to  make  extensions,  or  on  account  of 
inadequate  real  estate  for  needed  develop- 
ment, owing  to  the  property  having  been  im- 
properly apportioned  originally,  or  for  other 
causes  that  will  suggest  themselves.  The  oc- 
currence of  one  or  more  of  these  conditions 
is  so  usual  that  we  must  conclude  that  many 
industrial  plants  have  been  built  without  suf- 
ficient thought  being  given  to  existing  and 
future  needs. 

Moreover,  the  subject  is  constantly  assum- 
ing greater  importance,  owing  to  the  phe- 
nomenal growth  of  the  industrials  in  this 
country  and  abroad.  Increasing  confidence 


14  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

in  their  permanency  is  evidenced  by  the  more 
general  desire  of  administrators  to  provide 
adequately  for  the  future,  so  there  is  now 
needed,  in  the  building  of  industrial  plants, 
a  degree  of  foresight  that  former  conditions 
did  not  often  warrant.  The  building  prob- 
lem also  becomes  more  complex  as  companies 
assume  larger  proportions  (either  as  a  re- 
sult of  development  or  consolidation),  owing 
to  the  additional  factors  introduced  when 
providing  for  a  large  amount  of  diversified 
machinery,  and  for  the  handling  and  control 
of  large  numbers  of  employees.  Fortunately 
an  understanding  as  to  the  exacting  require- 
ments of  modern  equipment  and  processes 
and  of  new  systems  of  industrial  administra- 
tion and  the  desire  to  provide  for  the  future 
has  resulted  in  directing  attention  to  the  in- 
itial work  incident  to  the  building  of  new 
plants,  and  it  is  now  more  generally  appre- 
ciated that  the  efficiency  of  any  industrial  es- 
tablishment, in  the  final  analysis,  is  governed 
to  no  small  extent  by  the  effectiveness  of  the 
work  done  prior  to  the  actual  commencement 
of  building  operations. 

Now,  as  to  the  performance  of  this  prelimi- 
nary work,  it  was  first  assumed  that  those 
who  were  to  operate  a  plant  should  advise 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WORK  15 

the  architect  or  engineer  concerning  the  size, 
character,  and  internal  arrangements  of  all 
buildings,  and  such  factors  as  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  machinery,  facilities  for 
receiving,  handling,  and  shipping  materials, 
etc.  The  supposition  was  that  the  experience 
required  in  order  to  pass  correct  judgment 
upon  these  matters  was  wholly  outside  the 
knowledge  of  those  who  were  not  directly 
engaged  in  the  business  in  question.  A 
marked  change  in  policy,  however,  has  been 
brought  about  largely  by  a  class  of  adminis- 
trators (the  product  of  our  large  and  scien- 
tifically managed  industrials),  who  realize 
that  they  cannot  hope  to  find,  within  their 
own  specialized  organizations,  men  possess- 
ing the  broad  experience  and  particular 
ability  needed  for  the  successful  performance 
of  all  the  diversified  work  required  when 
building  a  new  plant  or  making  large  exten- 
sions. 

What  has  just  been  said  will  be  more  clear 
after  consideration  has  been  given  to  the 
classification  of  the  subject  appearing  below. 
It  will  be  evident  that  during  the  limited 
period  needed  for  the  designing  of  a  new 
plant,  almost  every  branch  of  engineering 
may  be  called  into  play,  whereas  the  proper 


16  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

conduct  of  the  routine  work  for  which  the 
plant  is  built  may  require  little  or  no  ac- 
quaintance with  these.  I  am  especially  anx- 
ious that  I  should  not  be  misunderstood  in 
this  regard.  Those  for  whom  the  new  plant 
is  being  built  must  in  any  event  be  counted 
upon  to  dictate  primary  requirements,  but 
in  the  majority  of  cases  their  experience 
should  be  supplemented  by  the  broader 
knowledge  of  others. 

For  the  use  of  a  better  term,  "Industrial 
Engineering "  has  been  quite  generally 
adopted  as  the  name  for  the  professional 
service  rendered  by  independent  engineers 
engaged  upon  such  work  as  we  have  under 
consideration.  Industrial  engineers  are  not 
usually  consulted  until  the  decision  to  build 
has  been  reached.  Such  a  decision  is  almost 
always  followed  by  a  desire  upon  the  part  of 
the  principals  to  have  the  work  completed  at 
the  earliest  moment.  This  is  but  natural,  as 
the  need  for  greater  facilities  and  accommo- 
dations for  them  is  usually  pressing  There- 
fore, the  engineer  engaged  (as  ti  j  owner 
puts  it),  "to  prepare  the  building  drawings/' 
must  accept  as  a  basis  much  that  the  owner 
pronounces  as  satisfactory  practice — and  this 
is  as  it  should  be,  for  it  is  principally  in  re- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WORK  17 

gard  to  the  broader  considerations  bearing 
on  shop  and  factory  layout  that  he  can  be  of 
the  most  service.  However,  the  combined  ef- 
ficiency of  a  new  plant  is  in  any  event  de- 
pendent to  a  marked  extent  upon  the  experi- 
ence and  ability  of  those  for  whom  the  work 
is  being  done. 

The  planning  and  constructing  of  an  indus- 
trial plant  is  essentially  a  one-man  job,  so  far 
as  control  is  concerned,  but  necessarily,  ow- 
ing to  the  diversified  problems  that  are  pre- 
sented, the  industrial  engineer  must  have  the 
support  of  not  only  his  principals  but  of  the 
engineering  and  commercial  organization 
with  which  he  is  identified! 

He  co-ordinates  the  mass  of  technical  mat- 
ter turned  in  to  him  by  the  various  engineers 
engaged  upon  his  work,  and  on  account  of  his 
intimate  acquaintance  with  his  client's  needs, 
aims,  and  resources,  he  is  able  to  consider  the 
conclusions  presented  from  a  broad  stand- 
point that  is  wholly  unknown  to  the  individ- 
ual workers.  A  man  acting  in  this  capacity 
must  know  how  to  co-operate  successfully 
with  other  men;  to  establish  confidence  in 
his  methods  through  complete  frankness  as 
to  his  own  or  his  organization's  limitations; 
and  to  remember  constantlv  that  it  is  the 


18  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

final  result  that  measures  the  usefulness  of 
his  efforts,  and  that  it  is  absolutely  imma- 
terial from  what  source  a  given  suggestion 
may  come.  It  is  this  mental  attitude 
that  marks  the  successful  industrial  engineer, 
and  the  combination  of  a  wholly  impersonal 
attitude,  coupled  with  the  ability  to  take  an 
aggressive  position  when  conditions  warrant 
it,  is,  as  a  rule,  acquired  only  after  consid- 
erable service. 

As  the  engagement  of  industrial  engineers 
is  constantly  becoming  more  customary,  it 
will  be  assumed  that  this  course  is  followed. 
By  doing  this,  the  part  that  the  owner  or 
operators  must  in  any  case  contribute  to  the 
work  will  be  emphasized,  and  it  will  be 
equally  clear  that  the  creative  work  of  the 
industrial  engineer  has  to  do  with  such  mat- 
ters as  are  not  usually  included  in  the  rou- 
tine experience  and  work  of  owner  or  opera- 
tor. 

The  classification  of  our  subject  that  has 
already  been  referred  to  appears  below.  The 
main  and  sub-headings  are  only  briefly  de- 
scribed, but  in  the  discussion  that  follows 
each  of  these  captions  will  be  taken  up  in  con- 
siderable detail. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   WORK  19 

CLASSIFICATIONS  OF  WORK  INCIDENT  TO  THE 
PLANNING  AND  BUILDING  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
PLANTS 

P. — Preliminary  Service — Chapters  II  and 
III. 

F. — Financing  the  work — Chapter  IV. 

D. — Detail  plans  and  specifications — Chap- 
ter V. 

C. — Construction  work  and  installation  of 
equipment — Chapter  VI. 

M. — Period  of  occupation  and  commence- 
ment of  operation — Chapter  VII. 

The  principal  subdivisions  of  the  above 
headings  are: 

(P)    PRELIMINARY  SERVICE 

P-a.  Determination  of  specific  manufacturing  re- 
quirements and  compilation  of  data  relating 
to  present  and  future  needs. 

P-b.  Determination  of  fundamental  principles  that 
will  be  followed  in  new  plant  regarding  the 
administration  of  all  manufacturing  details. 

P-c.  Consideration  of  features  exemplified  by  plants 
recently  built  for  essentially  the  same  class 
of  work. 

P-d.  Determination  of  kind  and  amount  of  machin- 
ery that  should  be  provided  for  immediately. 


20  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

P-e.  Determination  of  geographical  location  of  site 
and  whether  plant  should  be  built  in  busi- 
ness centre  or  suburban  section. 

P-f.  Determination  of  approximate  arrangement  of 
equipment  and  processes  based  upon  ele- 
mental routing  and  administration  require- 
ments. 

P-g.  Determination  of  floor  areas  required  for  manu- 
facturing departments,  storage  departments, 
assembling  departments,  offices,  etc.  Also 
for  likely  future  requirements. 

v  P-h.  Determination  of  departments  which  must  be 
accommodated  on  the  ground  level  and 
which  may  go  on  upper  floors. 

P-i.  Determination  of  railroad  and  trucking  facili- 
ties that  should  be  'available  for  receipt  and 
shipment  of  materials. 

P-j.  Determination  of  total  property  area  needed  at 
once,  and  amount  that  should  be  reserved 
for  the  future. 

P-k.  Selection  of  property  that  most  nearly  meets 
the  requirements  dictated  by  study  of  fore- 
going factors.    If  possible  it  is  preferable  to 
defer  purchase  until  completion  of  prelimi- 
•  nary  work. 

P-l.  Preparation  of  alternate  layouts  of  depart- 
ments, segregating  them  into  one  or  more 
buildings  of  assumed  types,  taking  into  ac- 
count all  the  foregoing  factors  including  the 
selected  property. 

P-m.  Eeconsideration  of  all  work  done  so  far  and 
preparation  of  a  revised  layout  incorporat- 
ing as  far  as  possible  the  best  features  of  the 
various  preliminary  studies.  Making  out- 
line drawings  of  buildings. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WORK  21 

P-n.  Preparation  of  a  classified  estimate  of  cost 
based  upon  unit  prices. 

P-o.  Determination  whether  estimated  expenditure 
would  result  in  a  "fixed  charge"  consistent 
with  the  probable  profits  of  the  business, 
i.  e.,  can  the  business  carry  the  necessary 
investment. 

P-p.  Determination  whether  owner  is  prepared  to 
make  the  total  justifiable  expenditure. 

P-q.  Revision  of  layouts,  if  required  by  financial 
limitations  (P-o.  or  P-p.  or  both),  and  plac- 
ing data  and  plans  in  suitable  form  to  be 
used  as  a  basis  for  the  preparation  of  archi- 
tectural and  engineering  drawings  and  speci- 
fications. 


(F)    FINANCING 

We  will  assume  that  the  owner  personally 
provides  the  necessary  funds  and  is  not  as- 
sisted in  any  way  during  his  negotiation 
therefore  by  the  industrial  engineer.  This 
is  the  usual  condition  in  connection  with  the 
building  of  industrial  plants.  A  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  elements  of  financing  is  there- 
fore not  necessary  in  this  book. 

(D)    DETAIL    PLANS    AND    SPECIFICATIONS 

(To  meet  requirements  defined  by  the  pre- 
liminary work.) 


22  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

D-a.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  spe- 
cial machinery  as  defined  by  preliminary 
work. 

D-b.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  all 
other  physical  features  defined  by  the  pre- 
liminary work. 

D-d.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
power  generating,  transmission,  and  driving 
equipment  to  meet  the  established  require- 
ments. 

D-d.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
equipment  needed  to  provide  artificial  light- 
ing in  accordance  with  fixed  requirements. 

D-e.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
ventilating  and  heating  equipment  needed 
to  meet  fixed  requirements. 

D-f.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
sanitary  arrangements  needed  to  meet  fixed 
requirements. 

D-g.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
fire-prevention  apparatus  based  upon  the 
conditions  established  by  the  preliminary 
work. 

D-h.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  the 
complete  building  or  buildings,  to  harmonize 
with  the  plans  and  specifications*  covered  by 
headings  D-a  to  D-g  inclusive,  and  to  meet 
requirements  defined  by  preliminary  work. 

D-i.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
yard  provisions  that  must  be  made  to  meet 
fixed  requirements. 

D-j.  Preparation  of  contracts  to  accompany  plans 
and  specifications  when  soliciting  bids,  so 
drawn  as  to  provide  proper  protection  for 
both  the  owner  and  contractor. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  WORK  23 

(C)    CONSTRUCTION  WORK  AND  INSTALLATION  OF 
EQUIPMENT 

C-a.  Selection  of  responsible  concerns  to  bid  upon 
plans  and  specifications  and  securing  bids 
from  such  parties. 

C-b.  Tabulation  of  bids,  conference  with  Owner,  fol- 
lowed by  placing  of  contracts. 

C-c.  Superintendence  of  building  construction  and 
yard  work. 

C-d.  Superintendence  of  installation  of  "service 
equipment"  and  all  standard  and  special 
machinery  or  appliances  needed  for  indus- 
trial purposes. 

C-e.  Checking  work  as  to  quality  and  amount  and 
approve  invoices. 

C-f.    Certifying  as  to  completion  of  contracts. 

(M)     PERIOD    OF    OCCUPATION    AND    COMMENCE- 
MENT  OF   OPERATION 

M-a.  Moving  equipment  and  accessories  from  old 
plant  into  the  new,  transferring  force,  and 
starting  up  work. 

M-b.  Correcting  minor  discrepancies  that  invariably 
evidence  themselves  after  the  plant  as  a 
whole  is  put  into  operation. 

M-c.  Training  the  force  of  administrators  and  op- 
erators along  the  lines  necessary  to  bring 
about  the  most  efficient  utilization  of  the 
buildings  and  other  facilities  provided. 


CHAPTEK  II 

DETERMINATION   OF   SPECIFIC   REQUIRE- 
MENTS 

THE  systematic  analysis  of  the  Prelimi- 
nary Service  (pages  19,  20)  recognized 
seventeen  subdivisions,  of  which  ten  relate 
to  the  specific  requirements  of  the  given 
propositions  and  seven  to  acquisition  of  the 
site  finally  chosen  as  best  suited  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  undertaking  and  the  final 
definition  of  all  building  and  equipment  fea- 
tures. These  sub-heads  will  be  discussed  in 
order. 

While  it  is  clear  that  each  of  them  has  a 
bearing  upon  the  building  of  industrial 
plants,  irrespective  of  the  nature  of  their 
output,  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  their 
relative  importance  is  governed  wholly  by 
the  purpose  and  conditions  of  each  particu- 
lar business  that  is  taken  under  considera- 
tion, and  the  governing  factor  in  one  case 
will  assume  only  a  minor  part  in  another. 
24 


DETERMINING    SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  25 

In  one  business  the  governing  motive  may 
be  publicity,  and  the  need  of  effecting  econ- 
omies in  processes  of  manufacture  may  be 
unimportant,  as  is  illustrated  by  certain  of 
the  patent-medicine  companies.  In  another 
case  the  advertising  problem  may  be  auto- 
matically solved  through  the  attainment  of 
a  product  of  the  highest  standard,  as  is  ex- 
emplified by  the  business  built  up  by  the 
Herreshoff  Manufacturing  Company,  de- 
signers and  builders  of  boats,  and  the  work 
conducted  some  years  ago  by  Alvan  Clark, 
whose  telescope  lenses  were  of  such  superla- 
tive worth  that  they  were  sought  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  In  these  instances  every- 
thing is  sacrificed  to  quality  and  a  standard 
of  product  is  attained  that  practically  elimi- 
nates competition.  The  majority  of  indus- 
trial plants,  however,  are  supplying  to  the 
market  articles  subject  to  close  competition, 
and  quality  of  output,  economy  of  manufac- 
ture, and  sales  effort  are  matters  of  almost 
equal  consequence.  This  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject should  be  constantly  in  mind  during  the 
explanation  that  follows,  for  it  cannot  be  em- 
phasized sufficiently  except  by  taking  up  the 
detail  consideration  presented  by  a  given  in- 
dustrial plant. 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

P-a.  Determination  of  the  specific  manufacturing 
requirements  and  compilation  of  data  relat- 
ing to  present  and  future  needs. 

It  has  been  stated  that  new  buildings  and 
machinery  for  indusrial  purposes,  if  exten- 
sive in  character,  are  almost  always  provided 
for  those  who  are  already  engaged  in  the  line 
of  business  that  is  to  be  accommodated,  so 
that  the  preliminary  work  commences  with 
a  study  of  the  existing  methods  and  facilities 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  purposes  that  have 
prompted  the  building  work. 

It  can  be  properly  assumed  that  the  funda- 
mental reason  for  a  given  organization  being 
engaged  in  a  certain  business  is  the  famili- 
arity of  its  members  with  the  requirements 
of  the  trade  supplied.  Such  knowledge  is  the 
main  asset  of  those  engaged  in  industrial 
work,  so  that  they  are  necessarily  best  able 
to  define  just  what  the  plant  is  to  manufac- 
ture and  what  its  output  shall  be.  There- 
fore, the  industrial  engineer  must  look  to  his 
principals  for  advice  in  this  regard. 

Every  large  business  has  one  or  more  men 
who  devote  all  or  part  of  their  time  to  the 
study  of  the  principal  matters  coming  under 
the  first  heading  of  "  preliminary  service "; 
and  changes  in  processes,  the  installation  of 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  27 

new  equipment  or  apparatus,  and  the  rear- 
rangement of  machinery  or  departments  are 
constantly  going  on.  The  articles  compos- 
ing a  large  part  of  this  Magazine 's  publica- 
tions bear  witness  to  the  enormous  amount 
of  investigation  and  planning  that  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  in  even  a 
comparatively  narrow  field  of  industrial 
work. 

The  selection  of  equipment  types  and  pro- 
cesses is  obviously  at  the  root  of  economical 
production,  so  constant  study  must  be  made 
of  these  subjects  to  keep  reasonably  up  to 
date.  Betterment  of  methods  usually  is  at- 
tained only  after  much  time  and  money  have 
been  expended,  and  it  is  manifestly  the  prov- 
ince of  those  who  are  directly  engaged  in  a 
given  business  to  institute  research  work  of 
this  character.  The  development  of  methods 
and  processes  incident  to  the  manufacture  of 
almost  any  line  of  output  illustrates  the  con- 
dition to  which  attention  has  just  been  di- 
rected. For  example,  the  present  method  of 
forming  the  felt  body  of  the  Derby  hat,  or 
the  process  now  used  in  making  the  printer 's 
matrix,  or  the  determination  of  the  composi- 
tion and  treatment  of  steel  for  an  efficient 
automobile  spring,  have  been  brought  to 


28  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

their  present  high  efficiency  only  after  years 
of  painstaking  work,  and  further  advances 
will  undoubtedly  come  slowly  and  are  likely 
to  entail  large  expenditures. 

Obviously  the  services  of  the  industrial  en- 
gineer should  not  be  expected  to  contribute 
materially  to  these  fundamental  industrial 
problems  which  are  special  to  each  individual 
industry.  They  comprise  that  part  of  the 
knowledge  needed  when  building  new  plants 
which  must,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  be  con- 
tributed by  those  directly  identified  with  the 
business  for  which  provision  is  to  be  made. 
But  the  industrial  engineer  must  thoroughly 
familiarize  himself  with  the  machinery, 
methods,  and  processes  in  use  in  the  existing 
plant,  for  it  is  this  information  which  will 
form  the  basis  for  his  subsequent  work.  It  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  during  this  period 
— and,  in  fact,  throughout  the  time  that  he 
is  engaged  upon  the  work — that  the  enginer 
be  accorded  the  full  co-operation  of  the 
owner  and  his  people,  although  he  should  be 
expected  to  take  the  initiative.  This  is  a 
matter  that  is  of  equal  importance  to  both 
parties,  for  while  the  industrial  engineer 
needs  the  advice  of  his  principals,  the  latter 
should  be  conversant  with  the  work  he  is  do- 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  29 

ing,  especially  after  the  preparation  of  de- 
partmental and  building  layouts  has  been 
commenced.  It  is  always  easier  to  secure  the 
approval  of  a  given  plan  by  discussing  it 
from  time  to  time  as  the  work  goes  forward, 
and  when  this  is  done  the  anticipated  ef- 
ficiency of  the  completed  plant  is  much  more 
likely  to  be  attained,  as  the  purpose  of  the 
various  provisions  that  have  been  made  is 
properly  understood  in  advance. 

The  preliminary  investigations  of  the  en- 
gineer will,  however,  cover  a  great  many  mat- 
ters concerning  which  his  principals  have 
little  or  no  reliable  knowledge.  These  com- 
prise the  factors  which,  in  a  certain  sense, 
are  incidental  to  the  specific  manufacturing 
work,  such  as  the  power  and  lighting  require- 
ments, heating  and  ventilating  requirements, 
sanitary  requirements,  care  of  employees, 
and  the  requirements  imposed  upon  the 
building  structures  by  the  work  in  question. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  the  power  and 
lighting  problems,  these  matters  are  in  the 
majority  of  cases  only  partially  understood 
by  those  who  manage  industrial  plants,  and 
we  should  not  expect  to  find  it  otherwise. 

Throughout  the  period  when  the  foregoing 
subjects  are  under  investigation  the  engineer 


30  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

should  make  complete  and  systematic  notes, 
and  in  many  cases  the  data  that  he  secures 
can  be  advantageously  reduced  to  unit  bases 
— such  as  the  floor  area  per  operator  in  dif- 
ferent departments,  or  the  floor  area  per  ton 
of  finished  product,  the  power  consumption 
per  square  foot  of  floor  area  needed  for  arti- 
ficial lighting  and,  in  some  cases,  for  power 
in  different  departments,  and  so  on.  It  is  in 
regard  to  details  of  this  kind  that  the  compe- 
tent industrial  engineer  has  a  great  advan- 
tage over  men  who  are  not  constantly  en- 
gaged in  this  field  of  work,  for  he  adheres  to 
a  definite  plan  of  procedure  that  has  been 
ascertained  after  repeated  modification  and 
amplification,  so  that  each  factor  is  taken  up 
in  its  proper  sequence  and  no  important  de- 
tail is  overlooked. 

P-b.  Determination  of  fundamental  principles  that 
will  be  followed  in  the  new  plant  regarding 
the  administration  of  all  manufacturing  de- 
tails. 

The  engineer  must  have,  in  addition  to  the 
information  just  covered,  complete  notes  con- 
cerning the  plan  that  will  be  followed  in  the 
finished  plant  for  the  administration  of 
manufacturing  work,  for  this  is  a  matter  that 
may  have  a  very  decided  influence  upon  the 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC   REQUIREMENTS  31 

arrangement  of  machinery  and  departments, 
and  it  is  the  basis  for  arriving  at  an  office 
layout,  including  the  clerical  offices  located 
throughout  the  shops.  Therefore  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  engineer  to  be  conversant  with 
the  fundamental  principles  entering  into  the 
different  systems  of  shop  management,  if  for 
no  other  purpose  than  to  know  how  to  pro- 
vide properly  for  the  system  that  is  pre- 
scribed. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  point  attention  is 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  selection  of  ma- 
chine-tool equipment  for  a  metal-working 
plant  employing  a  system  of  administration 
such  as  is  advocated  by  Mr.  Fred  W.  Taylor, 
would  prove  to  be  quite  a  different  problem 
from  that  which  would  be  offered  if  the  ma- 
chines were  installed  where  no  instruction 
cards  were  issued  and  the  men  were  guided 
almost  entirely  by  their  own  experience. 

Not  infrequently  the  industrial  engineer  is 
able  to  designate  to  his  principal  with  such 
clearness  the  advantage  that  would  accrue 
through  a  modification  in  his  system  of  man- 
agement, that  the  latter  will  adopt  his  recom- 
mendation and  agree  to  have  the  physical 
layout  prepared  in  accordance  therewith. 
For  example,  a  system  requiring  a  double- 


32  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

bin  storeroom  necessitates  that  considerably 
more  floor  space  be  given  up  to  this  depart- 
ment than  would  be  the  case  if  single  bins 
were  used.  If  the  former  plan  is  desirable, 
it  is  quite  important  that  this  decision  should 
be  reached  at  he  commencement  of  the  work. 
The  tool-room  system  that  is  to  be  followed 
in  a  large  metal-working  establishment  must 
be  considered  when  making  the  individual  de- 
partment layouts,  if  the  best  results  are  to 
follow,  and  the  system  of  checking  employees 
in  and  out  of  industrial  plants  is  a  determin- 
ing factor  when  providing  entrances  and 
exits. 

Occasionally  the  owner  desires  a  certain 
amount  of  latitude  provided  in  the  layout,  so 
that  he  may  be  able  to  depart  in  certain  par- 
ticulars 'from  the  prescribed  plan.  The  ex- 
tent to  which  this  is  possible  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  the  character  of  the  output.  A 
great  deal  of  industrial  work  is  performed 
upon  machines,  or  necessitates  the  use  of 
processes,  which  can  readily  be  housed  in 
standard  factory  buildings  that  need  not  be 
designed  with  particular  reference  to  the  re- 
quirements of  isolated  departments,  whereas 
in  other  cases  the  buildings  must  be  wholly 
special  in  character,  and  to  a  certain  extent 


DETERMINING    SPECIFIC   REQUIREMENTS  33 

should  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  neces- 
sary equipment. 

P-c.  Consideration  of  features  exemplified  by  plants 
recently  built  for  essentially  the  same  class 
of  work. 

The  information  secured  under  the  head- 
ings P-a  and  P-b,  after  being  recorded, 
forms  the  basis  for  the  layout  of  the  new 
plant  or  extension,  but'  it  should  be  supple- 
mented with  general  data  concerning  the 
practices  that  have  been  followed  by  others 
when  building  plants  for  essentially  the  same 
class  of  work. 

It  is  in  this  regard  especially  that  the 
services  of  a  properly  equipped  engineering 
organization  should  come  prominently  into 
play,  for  in  addition  to  their  own  experience 
they  should  have  for  reference  a  complete 
statistical  department  where  the  desired 
facts  could  be  readily  obtained.  Reference 
should  not  be  made  to  these  records  until  the 
owner's  practices  and  views  are  fully  under- 
stood, and  in  any  case  much  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised in  the  selection  of  features  that  have 
been  adopted  by  other  concerns,  because  they 
have  been  frequently  dictated  by  special  re- 
quirements that  are  not  evidenced  during  a 
casual  inspection. 


34  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

P-d.  Determination  of  kind  and  amount  of  machin- 
ery that  should  be  provided  for  immediately. 

The  machine  equipment  and  apparatus  for 
process  work  should  now  be  decided  upon. 
In  most  instances  the  list  comprises  a  certain 
amount  of  machinery  formerly  used  else- 
where, together  with  additional  equipment 
which  may  be  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
the  output  or  for  the  greater  efficiency  made 
possible  through  its  use.  The  probable  equip- 
ment requirements  for  the  future  should  also 
be  approximated,  as  this  governs  the  amount 
of  floor  space  that  it  should  be  possible  to 
secure  by  further  extensions.  The  owner 
and  engineer  are  frequently  confronted  with 
the  need  of  providing  equipment  for  the 
manufacture  of  certain  articles  in  large 
quantities,  which  had  been  turned  out  pre- 
viously only  in  small  lots.  In  such  case, 
after  the  output  of  a  given  type  of  machine 
had  been  ascertained  the  cost  of  operation 
must  be  carefully  figured,  taking  into  account 
all  fixed  charges.  Other  available  types  of 
machines  should  be  considered  in  the  same 
manner,  but  as  was  previously  stated  matters 
of  this  kind  are  usually  worked  out  by  the 
owner  prior  to  beginning  work  bearing  upon 
additional  accommodations  and  facilities. 


DETERMINING    SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  35 

Sometimes  complete  freedom  of  choice  is 
permissible  when  determining  the  machinery 
or  processes  that  shall  be  used,  whereas 
under  other  circumstances  collateral  condi- 
tions must  be  taken  into  account.  I  have  in 
mind  E  certain  industry  where  the  labor 
union  dominates  its  members  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  for  the  present,  at  least,  they  are 
successful  in  prohibiting  the  use  of  par- 
ticular machines,  or  if  they  are  used,  the  rate 
of  wages  per  piece  must  be  substantially  the 
same  as  for  performing  the  work  in  accord 
with  older  methods. 

The  point  has  now  been  reached  when 
the  department  layouts  can  be  worked  up 
as  a  preliminary  step  leading  directly  to  the 
arrangement  of  departments  within  given 
buildings  and  the  determination  of  building 
types.  When  this  has  been  done  the  neces- 
sary property  area  can  be  arrived  at,  the 
site  selected,  and  the  final  grouping  of  build- 
ings decided  upon.  The  results  of  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  kind  and  amount  of  ma- 
chinery that  should  be  provided  for,  as  well 
as  the  requirements  of  the  special  or  process 
work  imposed  by  the  business,  should  now  be 
carefully  tabulated,  and  time  can  be  greatly 
economized  and  more  complete  data  secured 


36  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

through  the  use  of  standard  forms  drawn 
up  for  the  purpose.  Much  of  this  body  of 
data  is  fixed  in  character;  for  example,  the 
weights  and  dimensions  of  the  largest  arti- 
cles that  are  handled  directly  govern  the 
floor  loads,  overhead  room,  door  openings, 
and  crane  requirements  that  should  be  pro- 
vided for  in. the  building  designs,  whereas 
such  unit  figures  as  the  floor  space  per  opera- 
tor in  different  departments,  or  the  handling 
cost  per  unit  of  output,  or  the  current  con- 
sumption for  artificial  lighting  per  square 
foot  of  floor  area,  frequently  show  the  neces- 
sity for  modification  of  the  preliminary  out- 
lines prior  to  their  adoption  as  a  basis  for 
the  work  that  follows. 

Then,  again,  a  study  of  certain  of  these 
statistics  will  often  result  in  the  discovery  of 
inefficient  performances  in  specific  opera- 
tions, and  means  for  their  correction  can  be 
provided  in  the  new  layout.  The  analysis  of 
certain  cost  data,  particularly  those  which 
have  to  do  with  the  handling  of  materials 
or  partially  finished  articles,  is  important, 
as  the  economies  which  should  follow  the  pro- 
vision of  facilities  other  than  those  in  use 
can  be  ascertained  only  with  such  informa- 
tion at  hand. 


DETERMINING    SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  37 

P-e.  Determination  of  geographical  location  of  site 
and  whether  plant  should  be  built  in  busi- 
ness centre  or  suburban  section. 

Additions  to  existing  plants  as  a  rule  are 
provided  either  upon  property  already 
owned,  or  on  an  adjoining  site  that  can  be 
acquired.  At  times,  however,  it  is  decided  to 
build  an  entirely  new  plant,  and  complete 
freedom  of  choice  may  be  permissible.  If 
this  is  the  case,  after  the  engineer  has  pro- 
ceeded thus  far,  he  can  intelligently  discuss 
with  the  owner  the  question  of  geographical  ^ 
location.  The  governing  factors  are  usually 
the  raw-material  market,  the  logical  point 
for  the  distribution  of  sales,  the  labor 
market,  and  certain  broad  matters  of  busi- 
ness policy.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
elaborate  these  factors  further  than  to  say 
that  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  certain 
businesses  will  show  a  good  profit  only  if  in- 
vestment charges  are  curtailed  to  a  minimum 
through  the  purchase  of  an  inexpensive  site 
and  the  adoption  of  buildings  of  the  utmost 
simplicity;  whereas  in  other  cases  much  more 
permanent  and  ornate  structures,  located  di- 
rectly in  a  business  centre,  may  be  permis- 
sible or  even  desirable  on  account  of  the 
advantages  from  the  standpoints  of  economy 


38  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

and  publicity  gained  through  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  market.  The  character  of  com- 
peting plants  must  always  be  taken  into  ac- 
count, as  sales  prices  are  governed  largely 
by  rates  at  which  other  companies  can  market 
their  goods  at  a  profit,  and  these  rates  are 
dependent  partially  upon  the  investment 
charges. 

Usually  a  number  of  locations  are  taken 
under  consideration  and  final  judgment  is  de- 
ferred until  the  negotiations  for  a  specific 
property  can  be  undertaken. 

P-f.  Determination  of  approximate  arrangement  of 
equipment  and  processes,  based  upon  ele- 
mental routing  and  administration  require- 
ments. 

The  character  of  the  locality  in  which  the 
plant  is  to  be  built  has  a  very  decided  in- 
fluence upon  the  layout  of  departments  and 
the  character  of  the  buildings,  as  it  largely 
governs  the  necessity  of  multiple-story  struc- 
tures. Since  a  decision  has  been  reached  in 
this  regard,  the  work  can  proceed  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  machinery  and  processes 
that  have  been  selected  previously  for  the 
performance  of  the  industrial  work.  In  the 
first  instance,  this  matter  should  be  con- 
sidered wholly  aside  from  any  preconceived 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  39 

opinions  (other  than  those  of  the  broadest 
character)  regarding  building  types.  Usually 
the  industrial  engineer  can  assist  very  ma- 
terially in  this  work,  as  the  arrangement  of 
machinery  and  the  inter-relationship  of  de- 
partments are  governed  by  broad  principles 
which  are  common  to  industrial  work  of  all 
kinds.  A  theoretical  arrangement  of  ma- 
chinery should  first  be  made,  with  a  view  to 
minimizing  the  travel  of  the  parts  or  ma- 
terials upon  which  work  is  to  be  done  when 
passing  from  the  state  in  which  they  are  re- 
ceived to  a  point  where  they  are  finished 
and  ready  for  assembling  and  shipment. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  to  follow  is 
to  make  accurate  templets  of  the  various  ma- 
chines or  the  spaces  required  for  manufac- 
turing or  process  work.  In  the  first  instance 
the  outline  of  each  templet  should  indicate 
the  over-all  dimensions  of  the  machine  or 
piece  of  apparatus,  and  if  these  are  greater 
than  the  foundation  dimensions,  the  latter 
should  be  indicated  by  lines  drawn  within 
the  limits  of  the  templet  itself.  Considera- 
tion must  be  given,  as  suggested  above,  to 
the  necessary  working  space  about  each  ma- 
chine. The  main  relationships  of  various 
templets  are  dictated  by  the  conclusions  that 


40  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

have  already  been  reached  concerning  the 
general  plan  of  manufacture  that  is  to  be 
adopted,  but  usually  a  number  of  alternate 
layouts  differing  in  detail  will  suggest  them- 
selves. 

In  certain  cases  the  routing  problem  is 
comparatively  simple  and  dictated  require- 
ments can  be  very  satisfactorily  met.  The 
arrangement  of  machinery  in  a  factory  for 
the  manufacture  of  Derby  hats  illustrates 
this  condition.  The  raw  material  consists 
principally  of  rabbit  fur,  which,  after  being 
properly  cleaned,  is  passed  through  a  ma- 
chine called  a  "former."  The  conically 
shaped  product  resulting  is  then  passed 
through  some  thirty  processes  that  grad- 
ually mold  these  cones  until  they  only  re- 
quire the  addition  of  trimmings  to  make  them 
complete  hats.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  hats 
comprise  essentially  but  one  piece  at  an  early 
stage  of  the  process,  and  the  path  that  they 
follow  can  be  readily  plotted  in  a  manner  that 
will  comply  with  the  requirements  of  mini- 
mum handling.  This  condition  also  lends 
itself  to  the  ready  satisfaction  of  a  funda- 
mental principle  underlying  the  management 
of  men — namely,  that  they  should  ever  feel 
the  pressure  of  work  yet  to  be  done  and  their 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC   REQUIREMENTS  41 

inability  to  quite  meet  the  demand  ahead  of 
them.  This  is  brought  about  through  the 
fact  that  the  partially  finished  hats  are 
passed  from  process  to  process  in  specially 
designed  racks,  and  as  the  operators  can 
plainly  see  the  product  they  have  to  draw 
on,  an  incentive  can  readily  be  created 
whereby  each  man  tries  to  get  done  with  the 
work  behind  him  and  overload  the  next 
operator. 

In  comparison  with  the  illustration  just 
cited,  consider  the  routing  problem  that  pre- 
sents itself  in  laying  out  a  plant  for  the 
manufacture  of  automobiles.  Several  thou- 
sand parts  enter  into  a  completed  touring 
car.  Many  of  these  require  the  same  classes 
of  equipment  for  their  manufacture,  and  it  is 
not  possible  to  arrive  at  machinery  and  de- 
partment layouts  that  do  more  than  meet 
with  a  fair  degree  of  efficiency  the  broad  re- 
quirements presented  by  the  production  as  a 
whole.  The  routing  of  individual  pieces  in 
many  cases  will  prove  very  unsatisfactory, 
but  such  sacrifice  must  be  made  in  order  to 
arrive  at  the  best  compromise.  I  wish  to 
dwell  particularly  on  this  word  "  compro- 
mise " — the  term  which  must  be  applied  to 
so  many  industrial-engineering  conclusions. 


42  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

As  a  rule,  there  are  such  a  multitude  of  fac- 
tors to  be  taken  into  account  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  arrive  at  a  solution  which  will  meet 
each  of  the  individual  requirements  in  more 
than  a  partially  satisfactory  way,  although 
the  result  as  a  whole  may  be  substantially 
the  best  that  can  be  obtained. 

The  engineer  who  is  well  versed  in  the 
work  incident  to  the  arrangement  of  equip- 
ment and  departments  in  industrial  plants 
realizes  to  how  small  an  extent  he  can  rely 
upon  any  established  rules  or  data  and  his 
initiative  and  common  sense  must  be  counted 
upon  to  bring  a  working  result  from  a  mass 
of  what  often  appear  to  be  conflicting  condi- 
tions where  no  logical  relation  can  be  traced. 

P-g.  Determination  of  floor  areas  required  for 
manufacturing  departments,  storage  de- 
partments, assembling  departments,  offices, 
etc. ;  also  for  probable  future  requirements. 

Having  arrived  at  the  arrangement  of  ma- 
chinery and  apparatus  required  for  process 
or  other  special  work  that  will  result  in  a 
minimum  charge  for  handling  of  product, 
it  is  necessary  to  decide  upon  the  space  that 
must  be  provided  around  each  machine  or 
process  for  the  storage  of  partially  finished 
product. 


DETERMINING   SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  43 

When  the  product  passes  automatically 
from  machine  to  machine,  it  is  impossible 
for  congestion  to  occur,  so  this  question  is 
easily  solved;  but  in  a  majority  of  cases  the 
performance  of  a  specific  manufacturing 
operation  upon  available  pieces  is  only  indi- 
rectly dependent  upon  machinery  other  than 
that  required  for  the  purpose  of  the  opera- 
tion in  question.  That  is,  the  work  is  not  con- 
tinuous ;  there  will  be  certain  pieces  or  ma- 
terials upon  which  work  is  yet  to  be  done, 
others  that  are  completed  insofar  as  the 
machine  in  question  is  concerned,  but  that 
must  be  stored  pending  the  time  when  they 
will  be  removed  to  the  next  operation.  When 
calculating  the  space  required  for  this  stor- 
age it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  best 
method  of  stacking  the  product;  that  is, 
whether  it  should  be  piled  on  the  floor  ad- 
joining the  machine,  or  in  boxes  or  special 
appliances  designed  for  the  purpose;  also 
whether  the  material  in  question  can  be 
moved  by  hand  or  must  be  handled  with 
power.  After  approximating  the  area  re- 
quired for  machines  and  storage  of  parts 
during  transit,  the  areas  needed  for  pas- 
sages, general  storage  departments,  special 
enclosures  (such  as  inspection  and  tool 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

rooms)  must  be  calculated  and  the  results 
incorporated  in  the  final  provisions. 

P-h.  Determination  of  the  departments  which  must 
be  accommodated  on  the  ground  level  and 
which  may  go  on  upper  floors. 

We  have  settled,  so  far,  only  the  sequence 
and  general  arrangement  of  machinery  and 
processes  and  an  allotment  of  space  consid- 
ered as  a  whole,  but  no  decision  has  been 
reached  concerning  the  definite  manner  in 
which  the  area  should  be  housed.  It  is  al- 
ways desirable  to.  perform  certain  kinds  of 
work  upon  a  first  floor;  for  example,  where 
the  machinery  is  very  heavy  and  must  be 
supported  upon  substantial  foundations,  or 
where  a  large  amount  of  overhead  room  is 
required  for  crane  service,  or  where  certain 
process  work  makes  it  desirable  to  have  di- 
rect overhead  ventilation,  as  may  be  the  case 
where  large  furnaces  are  installed.  This, 
however,  cannot  be  settled  wholly  from  the 
standpoint  of  manufacturing  requirements. 
It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  value  of  the 
real  estate  must  be  considered,  and  if  this  is 
excessive  it  may  be  necessary,  or  at  least  de- 
sirable, to  put  on  second  or  third  floors  de- 
partments which,  under  other  conditions, 
would  be  kept  on  the  ground  level.  There- 


DETERMINING    SPECIFIC    REQUIREMENTS  45 

fore,  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  the  cost  of 
the  real  estate,  but  this  can  be  done  with  rea- 
sonable accuracy  as  decision  has  already  been 
reached  as  to  the  probable  geographical  loca- 
tion and  character  of  locality  desired.  The 
results  of  this  part  of  the  work  largely  gov- 
ern decision  as  to  building  types  and  con- 
struction details. 

P-i.  Determination  of  railroad  and  trucking  facili- 
ties that  should  be  available  for  receipt  and 
shipment  of  materials. 

The  necessary  railroad  or  trucking  facili- 
ties, or  both,  required  in  connection  with  the 
receipt  of  product  entering  into  manufacture 
and  for  the  shipment  of  finished  goods,  have 
already  been  preliminarily  considered;  but 
these  matters  must  now  be  taken  up  in  de- 
tail, for  they  have  a  decided  bearing  upon 
the  selection  of  the  building  site.  The  de- 
sirability of  having  direct  communication 
with  more  than  one  trunk  line,  the  permis- 
sible radii  of  curves,  the  length  of  track  re- 
quired and  the  number  of  sidings  into  which 
it  should  be  divided  in  order  to  curtail  de- 
murrage and  otherwise  to  facilitate  the  oper- 
ation of  the  work  must,  therefore,  be  ascer- 
tained before  final  decision  upon  the  site  is 
made. 


46  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

P-j.  Determination  of  total  property  area  needed  at 
once  and  amount  that  should  be  reserved  for 
the  future. 

A  tabulation  should  now  be  made  of  the 
areas  necessary  for  different  classes  of  work, 
for  storage,  and  for  all  other  purposes  in- 
cluding yard  requirements,  the  immediate 
and  future  needs  being  segregated.  The 
open  and  enclosed  areas  should  be  totaled 
separately,  and  a  note  made  of  the  enclosed 
floor  space  that  does  not  necessarily  have 
to  be  upon  the  ground  floor.  With  all  the 
foregoing  data  at  hand,  a  fair  opinion  can 
be  reached  concerning  the  shape  of  property 
that  should  prove  most  desirable. 


CHAPTER  III 

SELECTION  OF  THE  SITE  AND  DEFINITION 
OF  THE   BUILDING  AND   EQUIP- 
MENT FEATURES 

THE  considerations  have  so  far  been 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  an 
ideal  property  can  be  had;  and  this  is  as  it 
should  be,  for  the  site  should  be  selected  with 
a  view  to  attaining  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
such  an  arrangement.  Of  course,  the  pro- 
cedure is  somewhat  different  if  the  location 
of  the  new  plant  is  fixed  in  advance,  as  actual 
conditions  must  then  be  taken  into  account 
from  the  start  with  a  view  to  minimizing  ap- 
parent disadvantages.  The  remaining  sub- 
divisions of  our  preliminary  service  have  to 
deal  with  the  selection  of  the  property  finally 
determined  to  be  most  suited  to  our  circum- 
stances, and  the  final  disposition  of  the  build- 
ing and  equipment  features.  These  subdivi- 
sions will  be  taken  up  in  detail  in  the  present 
chapter. 

47 


48  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

P-k.  Selection  of  property  that  most  nearly  meets 
the  requirements  dictated  by  study  of  the 
foregoing  factors.  If  possible,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  defer  purchase  until  completion  of 
preliminary  work. 

Usually  a  number  of  sites  are  found  to 
possess  certain  of  the  essential  requisites, 
although  each  may  fail  to  comply  in  some 
particular  with  the  ascertained  requirements. 
Consequently,  several  properties  are  fre- 
quently taken  under  consideration  pending 
the  completion  of  definite  layouts,  building 
sketches,  and  estimates  of  total  cost. 

In  order  to  make  the  best  selection  of  prop- 
erty for  an  industrial  plant,  all  the  data  bear- 
ing directly  upon  the  desirability  of  the  lo- 
cation for  the  business  in  question  should  be 
separately  tabulated,  and  in  this  way  the 
work  will  be  greatly  simplified  through  the 
ready  elimination  of  undesirable  sites.  The 
essential  data  will,  in  most  cases,  comprise 
a  knowledge  of  the  character  of  soil  for 
foundation  purposes,  expense  that  will  be 
incurred  to  make  the  property  available,  cost 
of  property,  availability  of  water,  coal,  oil, 
gas  or  other  raw  materials,  sewers,  and  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  locality  against  de- 
structive fires,  etc.  It  has  been  assumed  that 


SITE,    BUILDINGS,   AND   EQUIPMENT  49 

the  decision  previously  reached  as  to  geo- 
graphical location  has  been  based  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  desirability  of  the  labor 
market,  and  the  point  best  suited  for  the 
economical  receipt  of  the  materials  or  prod- 
ucts upon  which  work  is  to  be  done  and 
their  final  distribution  to  customers,  and,  of 
course,  only  such  properties  would  be  con- 
sidered as  afforded  the  requisite  area. 

If  one  property  appears  to  be  undoubtedly 
preferable  to  all  others,  the  engineer  can  then 
proceed  accordingly;  but  as  has  been  stated, 
it  is  possible  that  he  may  wish  to  work  up 
preliminary  layouts  for  several  properties 
before  making  the  final  selection.  In  this 
case,  precise  information  should  be  secured 
concerning  each  site  that  is  to  be  taken  under 
serious  consideration.  First  a  survey  should 
be  made,  preferably  by  engineers  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  municipality  or  county  in  which 
the  site  is  located,  for  their  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  status  of  local  surveys, 
deeds,  and  records  is  valuable.  The  "plat," 
as  a 'survey  is  called,  should  give  the  prop- 
erty limits  and  elevations  (at  the  intersec- 
tion of  suitable  cross-section  lines)  which 
should  preferably  refer  to  established  datum. 
The  location  and  character  of  all  buildings, 


50  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

or  other  structures,  and  railroad  sidings  ex- 
isting- on  the  property,  should  be  carefully 
recorded,  as  well  as  conditions  of  this  char- 
acter in  connection  with  the  abutting  prop- 
erties. 

All  sewers,  gas  pipes,  and  water  pipes  and 
openings  to  same,  as  well  as  all  electric  cir- 
cuits (both  overhead  and  underground)  oc- 
cupying the  adjoining  streets  or  crossing  the 
property,  should  be  indicated  and  their  depth 
or  height  above  the  standard  datum  noted. 
The  same  plat  should  indicate  the  location  of 
such  test  pits  as  are  made  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  soil  or  wells  that 
have  been  driven  to  ascertain  the  available 
water  supply,  and  a  note  should  be  included 
calling  attention  to  adjoining  streams,  if  any 
exist,  and  to  the  nearest  trolley  system  or 
railroad,  if  sidings  are  not  available  upon 
the  property. 

Frequently,  a  considerable  part  of  this  in- 
formation cannot  be  recorded  upon  the  plat 
itself;  but,  in  such  cases,  reference  should 
be  made  to  the  source  where  it  can  be  had. 
The  engineer's  work  is  greatly  facilitated  if 
thorough  information  in  regard  to  the  matter 
just  touched  upon  is  promptly  secured  and 
properly  recorded. 


SITE,    BUILDINGS,   AND    EQUIPMENT  51 

P-l.  Preparation  of  alternate  layouts  of  depart- 
ments, segregating  them  into  one  or  more 
buildings  of  assumed  types,  taking  into  ac- 
count all  the  foregoing  factors,  including 
the  selected  property. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  decide  to  how 
great  an  extent  the  different  departments 
should  be  individually  housed  or  shut  off 
from  each  other;  that  is,  how  the  total  floor 
area  should  be  divided  between  separate 
buildings,  and  the  given  buildings  into  dis- 
tinct units. 

Obviously,  it  would  be  inconsistent  to  have 
a  saw  mill  in  the  same  room  or  enclosure 
with  departments  for  shellacking  and  final 
finishing  of  wood  surfaces,  as  good  work  of 
this  character  cannot  be  performed  where  the 
surrounding  air  is  carrying  even  a  small 
amount  of  dirt  or  grit.  For  the  same  reason, 
a  gray-iron  foundry  should  be  separated  from 
a  machine  shop  in  which  delicate  or  accurate 
work  must  be  done. 

In  contrast  to  the  illustrations  just  cited, 
there  are  many  other  instances  where  it  is 
much  more  difficult  to  decide  whether  or  not 
the  departments  should  be  separately  housed. 

In  certain  localities  it  is  not  feasible  to 
have  union  and  non-union  men  working  side- 


52  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

by-side  in  the  same  shop  unless  their  work 
falls  under  widely  separate  heads.  This  is 
occasioned  by  the  fact  that  at  times  union 
men  positively  refuse  to  work  when  non- 
union men  are  engaged  in  their  midst.  Many 
types  of  machinery,  however,  can  be  properly 
and  economically  operated  by  comparatively 
unskilled  labor,  but  to  permit  this  it  becomes 
necessary  to  meet  the  limitations  imposed  by 
the  labor  unions  by  housing  such  equipment 
in  separate  buildings. 

It  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  con- 
nection with  all,  or  practically  all,  the  mat- 
ters that  we  are  discussing  there  is  a  very 
great  deal  of  room  for  difference  of  opinion 
among  those  who  are  working  together,  so 
that  it  is  always  necessary  for  the  engineer 
to  have  a  good  and  sufficient  reason  to  sup- 
port each  of  his  recommendations;  and  in 
many  cases,  after  the  problem  has  been  dis- 
cussed between  client  and  engineer,  a  modi- 
fied plan  is  adopted,  emphasizing  again  the 
need  of  complete  co-operation  upon  the  part 
of  all  interested  in  a  project  of  this  char- 
acter. 

We  have  now  reached  the  point  where 
preliminary  sketches  can  be  made  of  the 
buildings,  and  if  all  the  information  covered 


SITE,   BUILDINGS,   AND    EQUIPMENT  53 

by  the  foregoing  headings  has  been  syste- 
matically tabulated,  this  resolves  itself  into 
a  comparatively  simple  matter.  The  informa- 
tion in  question  dictates,  as  it  were,  the  places 
where  the  building  structure  must  not  tres- 
pass, so  that  the  design  of  a  building  to 
conform  with  all  the  industrial  requirements 
must  be  such  that  the  work  can  go  forward 
with  practically  as  much  freedom  as  though 
the  building  did  not  exist  at  all ;  that  is,  the 
workers,  whether  employed  at  individual  ma- 
chines or  engaged  in  moving  material  from 
point  to  point,  should,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, be  unconscious  of  the  existence  of  the 
housing  structure.  If  this  is  not  the  case, 
the  buildings  become  a  constant  hindrance  to 
the  efficient  performance  of  the  industrial 
work,  which  will  be  evidenced  through  ineffi- 
cient departmental  arrangements  and  the  ex- 
istence of  structural  details  that  interfere 
with  the  most  economical  manufacturing  per- 
formance. 

Possibly  a  crude  illustration  will  serve  to 
emphasize  this  point.  We  will  assume  that 
it  has  been  decided  to  build  an  enclosed  oval 
track  for  bicycle  races,  and  that  those  who 
are  behind  the  proposition,  being  familiar 
with  the  proper  plan  to  follow,  engage  a 


54  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

person  who  makes  a  specialty  of  the  building 
of  race  tracks  proper.  We  will  compare  the 
result  that  should  be  secured  in  this  case  with 
what  would  probably  follow  had  they  first 
employed  an  architect  to  design  the  building 
in  which  a  track  was  to  be  built.  In  the  first 
instance,  after  carefully  selecting  the  site, 
the  race  track  would  be  built  in  the  open,  and 
the  only  consideration  would  be  to  provide 
an  oval  that  from  every  standpoint  would 
lend  itself  to  the  attainment  of  the  highest 
racing  speed  with  the  greatest  degree  of 
safety.  After  the  accomplishment  of  this 
end,  it  would  be  a  comparatively  simple  mat- 
ter to  design  a  building  that  would  com- 
pletely house  the  track  without  interfering 
in  the  slightest  way  with  the  performance  of 
the  riders.  In  the  second  instance,  while 
the  requirements  of  a  high-speed  race  track 
would  no  doubt  be  taken  into  account  to  a 
certain  extent  by  the  architect,  it  is  more 
than  likely  that  after  the  work  was  completed 
certain  difficulties  would  develop.  For  ex- 
ample, it  might  be  found  that  the  track  could 
not  be  banked  at  the  corners  quite  as  much 
as  it  should  be,  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  row 
of  side  windows  of  a  continuous  height 
around  the  building  prevented  such  a  course. 


SITE,    BUILDINGS,   AND    EQUIPMENT  55 

Again,  the  widening  of  the  track  at  the  curves 
might  be  interfered  with  through  the  location 
of  one  or  more  columns  that  had  been  placed 
without  knowledge  of  the  fine  points  of  race- 
track requirements,  such  as  the  plan  used  by 
contestants  for  passing  each  other  at  the 
curves.  Just  as  the  governing  factor  in  the 
solution  of  the  illustration  cited  above  is  sim- 
ply a  routing  proposition,  so  it  is  also  of  great 
importance  in  regard  to  the  determination  of 
the  character  and  sizes  of  buildings  for  in- 
dustrial purposes;  but  this,  of  course,  does 
not  apply  to  the  selection  of  building  types— 
that  is,  the  kind  of  structure  that  should  be 
adopted. 

The  decision  whether  the  buildings  should 
be  of  reinforced  concrete,  or  of  mill  con- 
struction, or  steel-frame,  rests  in  part  upon 
the  specific  requirements  dictated  by  the 
manufacturing  work  that  is  to  be  performed 
within  them  and  upon  certain  requirements 
incidental  to  this  work,  such  as  climatic  con- 
ditions, provision  for  protection  against  fire, 
the  character  of  locality  in  which  the  build- 
ings are  to  be  erected,  etc.  Not  infrequently 
the  various  buildings  composing  a  large  plant 
can  be  constructed  of  different  materials, 
without  militating  against  the  efficiency  of 


56  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  plant  as  a  whole,  either  from  the  stand- 
point of  fire  hazard  or  industrial  require- 
ments, and  by  so  doing  the  expenditure  neces- 
sary for  this  part  of  the  plant  may  be 
minimized. 

Many  illustrations  could  be  cited  to  show 
the  influence  that  the  manufacturing  work 
may  have  upon  the  building  types,  and  on 
this  account  it  is  necessary  that  the  industrial 
engineer  should  be  quite  as  conversant  with 
the  characteristics  of  the  various  types  of 
construction  that  are  in  use,  as  he  must  be 
with  the  requirements  arising  through  the 
conduct  of  the  business  that  is  to  be  housed. 
The  absence  of  vibration  in  a  properly-de- 
signed, reinforced-concrete  building,  where 
high-speed  machinery  has  been  installed, 
makes  the  system  preferable  for  such  pur- 
poses, etc. 

It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
nature  of  the  contents  of  an  industrial  plant, 
and  the  fire  hazard  presented  by  outside  con- 
ditions, are  the  governing  factors  in  connec- 
tion with  the  selection  of  the  type  of  building 
construction  best  suited  to  comply  with  the 
requirements  of  fire  protection.  In  some 
cases  the  adoption  of  reinforced  concrete 
eliminates  the  need  of  a  sprinkler  system, 


SITE,   BUILDINGS,   AND   EQUIPMENT  57 

although  usually  this  is  not  so.  A  properly 
designed  building  of  mill  construction,  if 
protected  with  sprinklers,  fire-fighting  appa- 
ratus and  cut-off  walls,  is  in  many  cases  as 
reliable  as  industrial  conditions  demand. 

The  question  of  appearance  of  buildings 
has  been  previously  touched  upon,  and  where 
an  attractive  plant  is  desired  the  character 
of  the  buildings  that  should  be  located  upon 
the  front  of  the  property  must  be  selected 
with  this  requirement  in  mind.  In  most  cases 
there  is  a  logical  front  to  a  building  site 
dependent  upon  the  layout  of  streets,  rail- 
road facilities,  railroad  stations,  and  street- 
car lines. 

P-m.  Reconsideration  of  all  work  done  so  far  and 
preparation  of  a  revised  layout  incorporat- 
ing,, as  far  as  possible,  the  best  features  of 
the  various  preliminary  studies.  Making 
outline  drawings  of  buildings. 

The  time  has  now  arrived  when  the  final 
block  plan  or  property  layout  can  be  pre- 
pared, and  as  a  number  of  alternate  schemes 
will  probably  have  been  suggested,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  every  effort  to  incorporate  the 
good  features  of  each  of  these  in  the  final 
plan.  By  this  time  there  is  not  likely  to  be 


58  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

much  doubt  as  to  which  property,  among 
those  under  consideration,  is  most  desirable, 
all  things  considered,  so  that  the  block  plan 
now  referred  to  must  be  accurate  and  final 
in  every  particular. 

Previous  consideration  will  have  been 
given  to  the  question  of  railroad  facilities, 
but  now  the  approval  of  the  plans  by  the 
trunk-line  railroad  upon  which  the  property 
is  located  must  be  secured,  and  all  other  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  site  that  may  have  been 
settled  in  only  a  tentative  manner  must  be 
defined  beyond  any  misunderstanding. 

Following  the  completion  of  the  final  block 
plan,  accurate  outline  drawings  must  be 
made,  illustrating  all  the  principal  charac- 
teristics and  giving  the  essential  dimensions 
of  the  various  buildings,  or  enclosures,  re- 
quired. These  drawings  are  necessary  both 
in  connection  with  the  preparation  of  the  es- 
timate of  cost  and  for  the  purpose  of  making 
clear  to  the  owner  the  exact  character  of  plan 
that  is  recommended.  If  the  plant  is  of 
considerable  size,  it  is  also  desirable  to  pre- 
pare a  large  perspective  drawing  showing 
the  layout  as  a  whole. 

P-n.  Preparation    of   a   classified   estimate    of   cost 
based  upon  unit  prices. 


SITE,    BUILDINGS,   AND    EQUIPMENT  59 

An  estimate  of  cost  must  now  be  made, 
covering  the  expenditure  necessary  in  order 
to  carry  out  the  entire  work  contemplated 
by  the  drawings  and  notes  recorded  during 
the  performance  of  the  work  that  has  gone 
before.  This  estimate  should  be  classified  so 
that  the  costs  of  the  principal  items  entering 
into  the  layout  can  be  considered  separately. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  such  an  estimate  should 
be  based  upon  the  unit-cost  figures,  for  the 
plans  and  specifications  should  not  as  yet 
have  been  carried  to  the  point  where  the 
actual  quantities  of  materials  can  be  ascer- 
tained and  the  amount  of  labor  estimated. 
An  important  part  of  the  data  carried  in 
the  records  of  engineering  organizations 
which  specialize  upon  industrial  work  has  to 
do  with  such  unit  costs,  and  if  proper  dis- 
cretion is  exercised  in  its  use  the  total  figures 
arrived  at  are  usually  found  to  check  closely 
with  the  actual  expenditures  incurred. 

The  cost  of  multiple-story  reinforced-con- 
crete  buildings  can  be  estimated  with  reason- 
able accuracy  upon  a  basis  of  so  much  per 
cubic  foot,  depending  upon  the  floor  loading, 
general  character  of  the  building,  etc.  The 
cost  of  heating  by  direct  radiation  can  be 
estimated  upon  the  basis  of  so  much  per 


60  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

square  foot  of  radiation,  depending  upon  the 
temperature  desired,  the  locality  of  the  plant, 
the  character  of  the  building,  etc.  Many 
other  important  items  of  expense  can  be 
readily  worked  up  in  the  same  manner,  al- 
though it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  secure 
definite  lump-sum  figures  upon  all  special 
equipment  or  unusual  provisions  entering 
into  the  plant. 

P-o.  Determination  whether  estimated  expenditures 
would  result  in  a  "fixed  charge"  consistent 
with  the  probable  profits  of  the  business; 
i.  e.,  can  the  business  carry  the  necessary 
investment. 

The  estimate  should  now  be  presented  to 
the  owner,  who,  with  the  engineer  in  consul- 
tation, should  decide  whether  the  expendi- 
tures required  will  result  in  interest  and  de- 
preciation charges  that  are  greater  than  the 
business  can  properly  stand.  Very  frequently 
decision  in  this  regard  must  rest  upon  the 
broad  judgment  of  the  owner,  rather  than 
upon  definite  figures  arrived  at  through  prep- 
aration of  detail  estimates  of  operating  ex- 
penses. If  it  is  decided  that  the  expenditure 
is  excessive,  after  taking  into  account  all 
probable  advantages  that  it  would  provide, 
the  plan  must  be  consistently  modified  with 


SITE,   BUILDINGS,   AND   EQUIPMENT  61 

a  view  to  curtailing  the  first  cost.  It  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down  any  definite  rule  for  ac- 
complishing this,  for  every  commission  pre- 
sents somewhat  different  conditions;  but  the 
engineer  should  by  this  time  have  gained  an 
insight  into  the  entire  problem  that  will  en- 
able him  to  decide  with  reasonable  prompt- 
ness where  the  necessary  economies  can  be 
effected. 

P-p.  Determination   whether   owner   is   prepared   to 
make  the  total  justifiable  expenditure. 

Not  infrequently  the  owner  may  not  be 
prepared  to  make  the  requisite  expenditure, 
even  though  conditions  may  indicate  that 
they  are  entirely  warranted;  and  if  this 
is  the  case,  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  en- 
gineer should  take  a  firm  stand  in  regard  to 
the  policy  that  should  be  followed,  for  only 
too  often  the  value  that  should  accrue  from 
the  preliminary  investigations  is  in  a  large 
measure  lost  through  too  hasty  a  readjust- 
ment of  the  plan.  The  engineer,  of  course, 
must  co-operate  with  his  principal  to  the  full- 
est extent,  recognizing  the  need  of  keeping 
well  within  the  funds  that  can  be  surely 
counted  upon  as  available  for  the  work.  He 
must  remember  that  successful  concerns  are 


62  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

constantly  extending  and  developing,  and 
that  the  purpose  of  the  preliminary  study  is 
primarily  to  arrive  at  a  plan  of  development 
that  can  be  followed  out  either  to  the  full  ex- 
tent warranted  by  business  conditions,  or  to 
the  limit  of  the  available  resources  of  those 
who  have  in  hand  the  business  in  question. 

P-q.  Revision  of  layouts,  if  required  by  financial 
limitations  (P-o  or  P-p  or  both),  and  placing 
da,ta  and  plans  in  suitable  form  to  be  used 
as  a  basis  for  the  preparation  of  architectural 
and  engineering  drawings  and  specifications. 

If  the  owner  decides  that  he  cannot  build 
to  the  extent  that  the  approved  estimate  re- 
quires, it  is  necessary  that  the  engineer 
should  be  especially  firm  in  his  stand  for  a 
proper  disbursement  of  whatever  money  is 
spent,  for  particularly  at  this  time  he  must 
guard  against  assenting,  through  pressure 
that  may  be  brought  to  bear  by  the  owner, 
to  a  plan  of  procedure  that  would  militate 
seriously  against  ultimate  plant  efficiency. 

The  result  of  the  foregoing  preliminary 
work  should  be  an  approved  layout  of  build- 
ings upon  the  property,  the  exact  definition 
of  such  matters  as  service  and  manufacturing 
equipment,  railroad  facilities,  building  types 
and  sizes,  etc.,  and  it  remains  as  a  final  step 


SITE,    BUILDINGS,    AND    EQUIPMENT  63 

only  to  tabulate  all  the  data  and  to  prepare 
such  further  sketches  as  may  be  required 
as  a  basis  for  the  preparation  of  the  detail 
plans  and  specifications  for  the  architectural 
and  engineering  features.  This  brings  us  to 
the  second  broad  heading  of  the  classification 
of  work  incident  to  industrial  construction. 

In  concluding  what  has  been  said  regard- 
ing the  preliminary  work,  I  wish  to  repeat 
that  as  a  rule  the  principal  questions  at  issue 
demand  for  their  solution  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  originality  upon  the  part  of  the 
engineer  in  direct  charge  of  the  work, 
whereas  his  intimacy  with  what  has  already 
been  done,  coupled  with  his  ability  to  co-oper- 
ate with  others  and  to  arrive  at  sound  con- 
clusions after  the  facts  have  been  ascer- 
tained, in  a  large  measure  govern  his  success. 
The  faculty  of  observation,  together  with  a 
mind  that  will  unconsciously  analyze  reasons 
for  conditions  with  which  it  comes  in  contact, 
are  a  necessary  part  of  his  equipment.  The 
effort  should,  of  course,  be  made  to  solve 
each  operation  in  a\more  efficient  manner 
than  had  previously  been  done,  but  little 
progress  will  be  made  except  by  those  who 
profit  to  the  fullest  extent  by  past  perform- 
ance in  the  same  field  of  activity. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DETAIL  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

IT  will  be  assumed  in  connection  with  all 
that  follows  that  the  preliminary  work 
has  been  properly  completed,  resulting  in  an 
exact  definition  as  to  the  entire  physical  re- 
quirements of  the  plant,  so  that  the  work 
under  this  heading  resolves  itself  mainly  into 
the  selection  of  such  standard  apparatus  and 
construction  appliances  as  will  most  effi- 
ciently meet  the  specified  needs,  and  the  prep- 
aration of  detail  plans  for  the  buildings  and 
for  special  features  that  cannot  be  secured 
in  the  open  market  and  must,  therefore,  be 
built  to  order.  In  either  instance,  the  char- 
acter of  the  equipment,  materials,  or  work  re- 
quired is  defined  through  the  medium  of 
drawings  and  specifications,  and  the  efficiency 
with  which  the  requirements  are  met  depends 
principally  upon  the  manner  in  which  these 
are  prepared  and  the  purchasing  negotia- 
tions conducted.  As  the  procedure  varies 

64 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  65 

considerably,  depending  upon  the  particular 
feature  of  the  plan*  that  is  under  consid- 
eration, the  subject  will  be  considered  briefly 
under  each  of  the  sub-divisions  that  were  enu- 
merated in  the  first  chapter. 

D-a.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  spe- 
cial machinery  as  defined  by  preliminary 
work. 

As  this  sub-heading  relates  specifically  to 
special  machinery,  the  drawings  and  specifi- 
cations prepared,  in  order  to  assure  the  pro- 
vision of  suitable  apparatus,  must  be  in  much 
more  detail  than  is  necessary  when  the  con- 
ditions can  be  fulfilled  by  standard  equip- 
ment. No  fixed  rule  can,  however,  be  laid 
down  as  a  guide,  for  in  some  cases  an  exact 
definition  of  the  work  that  is  to  be  accom- 
plished and  a  general  description  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  machine  that  is  needed,  are 
all  the  data  that  it  is  desirable  to  place  in 
the  hands  of  those  competent  to  submit  bids, 
whereas  in  other  instances  detail  designs 
should  be  fully  worked  out,  thus  relieving 
the  builder  of  all  responsibility  other  than 
that  pertaining  to  a  strict  compliance  with 
the  drawings  and  specifications.  Special  ap- 
paratus of  this  character  is  usually  provided 
for  directly  by  the  owner,  as  his  experience 


66  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

should  qualify  him  in  such  special  matters  to 
an  extent  that  would  hardly  be  possible  with 
the  engineers. 

D-b.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  all 
other  industrial  physical  features  defined  by 
the  preliminary  work. 

This  sub-heading  pertains  to  all  equipment 
and  apparatus  required  directly  in  connec 
tion  with  manufacturing  or  process  work 
other  than  the  special  machinery  just  men- 
tioned. The  majority  of  industrial  com- 
panies depend  for  the  performance  of  the 
greater  part  of  their  work  upon  standard 
equipment  and  apparatus  that  is  built  for 
the  trade,  and  the  mistake  is  often  made  of 
believing  that  the  selection  of  equipment  of 
this  character  is  a  comparatively  simple  mat- 
ter and  does  not  require  the  consideration 
that  should  be  given  to  the  more  special  fea- 
tures. As  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  available 
for  most  trades  so  many  different  makes  and 
types  of  apparatus  designed  for  the  perform- 
ance of  essentially  the  same  work  that  it  is 
by  no  means  a  simple  matter  to  select  the 
particular  equipment  best  suited  to  a  given 
purpose.  In  the  machine-tool  business,  for 
example,  manufacturers  of  engine  lathes, 
boring  mills,  milling  machines,  drilling  ma- 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND   SPECIFICATIONS  67 

chines,  etc.,  have  designed  their  particular 
output  for  the  performance  of  work  coming 
within  certain  well-defined  limits  as  to  size, 
accuracy,  and  speed  of  operation,  and  the  ex- 
isting differences  must  all  be  taken  into  care- 
ful account  when  purchasing  machine  tools 
for  a  given  business.  As  the  leading  ma- 
chine-tool builders  have  established  their 
reputations  through  their  ability  to  carry  out 
their  guarantees,  it  is  sufficient  when  solicit- 
ing bids  to  forward  to  them  a  concise  state- 
ment of  the  character  of  work  that  is  to  be 
done,  and  to  ask  that  complete  data  be  sub- 
mitted as  to  the  details  of  the.  machine  recom- 
mended and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  oper- 
ations can  be  performed.  There  are,  of 
course,  certain  matters  concerning  which  ma- 
chine-tool builders  should  be  posted,  such  as 
the  system  of  motor  drive  that  is  desired 
if  the  machine  is  to  be  electrically  equipped, 
the  kind  of  tool-steel  that  is  in  use,  and  any 
other  features  bearing  on  the  machines '  oper- 
ation that  have  been  standardized  for  the 
shop  in  question.  A  careful  comparison  of 
the  information  returned  with  the  bids  will 
promptly  reveal  the  detail  features  in  which 
they  differ;  and  this  understanding,  coupled 
with  a  knowledge  as  to  the  performance  of 


G8  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  machines  in  other  plants,  forms  the  basis 
for  final  judgment. 

This  method  applies  generally  to  the  pur- 
chase of  wood-working  machinery,  textile  ma- 
chinery, cement-making  machinery,  and  all 
other  standard  types  of  manufacturing  equip- 
ment. Such  equipment  is  usually  purchased 
by  those  who  will  have  to  do  with  its  opera- 
tion after  the  plant  is  completed,  although 
occasionally  engineering  organizations  are 
engaged  to  handle  this  work. 

D-c.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
power  generation,  transmission,  and  driving 
equipment  to  meet  the  established  require- 
ments. 

The  principal  work  in  connection  with  the 
selection  of  this  equipment  is  completed  when 
the  plant  requirements  have  been  fully  de- 
fined. As  this  is  a  matter  that  was  touched 
upon  in  a  previous  section  it  need  not  be  dealt 
with  here.  A  decision  having  been  reached 
as  to  size  of  power  units  that  will  be  re- 
quired, the  kind  of  current  needed  for  power 
and  lighting  purposes,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  to 
figure  out  carefully,  unless  the  data  are  al- 
ready available,  the  cost  of  power-plant  oper- 
ation based  upon  the  installation  of  the  va- 
rious types  of  apparatus  that  are  available. 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  69 

The  determination  of  the  character  of  the 
prime  mover  is  followed  by  the  choice,  if 
steam  is  to  be  used,  between  turbines  and 
reciprocating  engines  and,  if  the  latter,  be- 
tween simple  or  compound,  condensing  or 
non-condensing. 

Having  narrowed  down  each  other  impor- 
tant feature  in  the  same  way,  specifications 
should  be  drawn  in  such  manner  that  while 
details  such  as  ratio  of  heating  surface  to 
grate  area,  steam  pressure,  piston  speed,  cur- 
rent density  of  electrical  conductors,  etc., 
are  all  confined  to  limits  that  experience  has 
proved  to  be  satisfactory,  yet  detail  restric- 
tions should  not  be  made  that  rule  out  the 
product  of  reliable  companies  which  other- 
wise would  fulfill  the  requirements. 

There  are  certain  features  in  connection 
with  the  power  and  driving  equipment  which, 
as  a  rule,  must  be  designed  before  bids  can 
be  properly  solicited.  I  haye  in  mind  prin- 
cipally the  piping,  wiring,  switchboard,  line 
shafting,  and  transmission  equipment  gen- 
erally. It  is  in  regard  to  these  matters  that 
adherence  to  a  definite  procedure  is  of  special 
importance.  The  contractors  for  the  piping 
and  wiring  and  other  items  referred  to  will 
volunteer  to  submit  their  own  designs,  but 


70  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

this  course  should  not  be  permitted  as  there 
will  be  no  definite  basis  for  comparison  of 
bids,  and  the  work  will  be  done  by  parties 
who  are  not  conversant  with  the  operation 
of  the  whole,  and  under  conditions  which  are 
not  favorable  to  proper  protection  of  the 
owner's  interest.  The  conditions  are  quite 
the  reverse  of  those  existing  in  the  machine- 
tool  trade,  for  example.  In  the  latter  in- 
stance, not  only  does  the  acceptance  of  the 
builder's  design  permit  of  the  purchase  of  a 
standard  machine,  but  years  of  research  and 
practical  experience  have  enabled  the  leading 
machine-tool  builders  to  attain  a  proficiency 
in  matters  of  design  that  is  wholly  beyond 
any  result  that  could  be  obtained  by  anyone 
not  directly  in  the  business.  A  piping  lay- 
out, however,  is  a  made-to-order  proposition, 
differing  totally  in  its  nature  from  the  illus- 
tration just  cited,  and  its  proper  solution  can 
be  best  worked  out  by  an  engineer  specializ- 
ing on  steam  installations. 

D-d,  e,  f .  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
equipment  needed  to  provide  artificial  light- 
ing, ventilating  and  heating,  and  sanitary 
arrangements  needed  to  meet  fixed  require- 
ments. 

The  same  procedure  that  was  outlined  in 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND   SPECIFICATIONS  71 

connection  with  the  power  plant,  wiring,  and 
piping  work  applies  to  the  features  included 
under  these  sub-headings.  A  certain  amount 
of  designing  must  in  each  case  follow  the  de- 
cision as  to  the  system  or  type  of  equipment 
that  will  be  used,  but  the  designing  will  have 
to  do  principally  with  broad  considerations, 
such  as  the  number  and  location  of  lighting 
fixtures,  the  amount,  character  and  location 
of  pipe  coils  or  radiators,  the  size  and  loca- 
tion of  ventilating  fans,  vacuum  pumps,  or 
other  apparatus  necessary  to  the  proper  ful- 
fillment of  these  requirements.  Minor  details 
of  construction  should  be  left  open  to  as  great 
an  extent  as  possible. 

D-g.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  fire- 
prevention  apparatus  based  upon  the  condi- 
tions established  by  the  preliminary  work. 

During  the  course  of  the  preliminary  work 
decision  will  have  been  reached  as  to  what 
provisions  are  to  be  made  for  fire  prevention. 
This  may  be  indirectly  accomplished,  in  part, 
through  the  adoption  of  thoroughly  fireproof 
structures  and,  in  certain  cases  where  the 
buildings  house  non-combustible  contents,  lit- 
tle or  no  fire-fighting  apparatus  need  be  in- 
stalled. In  the  majority  of  cases,  however, 
pressure  lines  must  be  provided  for  the  dis- 


72  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

tribution  of  water  to  suitably  located  outlets 
for  hose  connections  and  to  sprinkling  sys- 
tems, and  in  such  cases  the  standards  estab- 
lished by  the  various  insurance  inspection 
bureaus  and  by  the  Associated  Factory  Mu- 
tual Insurance  Company  should  be  adopted 
as  a  guide  when  preparing  plans  and  specifi- 
cations. Here  again  the  specifications  that 
are  sent  out  when  soliciting  bids  should  be 
sufficiently  complete  to  assure  a  fixed  basis 
for  the  comparison  of  quotations  through  a 
proper  definition  of  the  specific  types  of  ap- 
paratus and  details  of  construction  that  are 
particularly  desired. 

D-h.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for  the 
complete  building  or  buildings,  so  prepared 
as  to  harmonize  with  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions covered  by  headings  D-a  to  D-g  inclu- 
sive, and  to  meet  requirements  defined  by 
preliminary  work. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  plans  and 
specifications  for  the  buildings  depends,  of 
course,  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  type 
of  construction  that  is  adopted.  Buildings, 
considered  as  a  whole,  are  essentially  a  built- 
to-order  proposition ;  but  of  course  they  must 
be  designed  with  a  view  to  utilizing,  to  as 
great  an  extent  as  conditions  will  permit, 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND   SPECIFICATIONS  ?3 

standard  materials  and  such  standard  fea- 
tures as  metal  window  frames,  sash-operating 
devices,  ventilators,  skylights,  post  caps  and 
hangers,  etc.  It  may  be  that  in  time  the 
buildings  required  to  house  industries  of  a 
certain  character  will  be  standardized,  units 
being  built  for  certain  established  outputs, 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  buildings 
will  always  be  special  for  each  business  that 
is  to  be  accommodated.  Conditions  cannot 
be  otherwise  until  every  detail  entering  into 
the  internal  arrangement  of  the  buildings  has 
been  standardized.  Owing  to  the  multiplicity 
of  factors  that  are  involved,  the  room  that 
exists  for  differences  of  opinion,  and  the 
range  in  the  desires  of  owners  as  to  capacity, 
this  result,  if  ever  accomplished,  will  be  at- 
tainable only  in  certain  businesses  where 
the  processes  are  clearly  defined,  such  as 
cement  plants,  rolling  mills,  etc. 

The  cost  incurred  through  the  construction 
of  "made-to-order  buildings  "  compared  with 
what  it  would  be  if  they  could  be  standard- 
ized is  not,  however,  so  much  greater  as 
might  be  supposed,  as  in  any  case  it  is  neces- 
sary to  construct  each  job  separately  at  the 
location  that  has  been  selected;  and  if  the 
plans  and  specifications  are  properly  pre- 


74  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

pared  for  the  various  parts  of  the  buildings 
that  are  bought  wholly  or  partially  assem- 
bled, such  as  the  structural  steel  work,  mill 
work,  etc.,  the  repetitive  manufacturer  will 
make  the  shop  costs  compare  favorably. 
Building  costs  are,  however,  influenced  to  a 
much  greater  extent  by  the  character  of  the 
plans  and  specifications  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed, and  this  is  particularly  true  insofar 
as  the  actual  field  costs  are  concerned.  Those 
familiar  with  the  status  of  the  various  build- 
ing trades  that  must  be  employed  in  con- 
junction with  the  erection  of  buildings  realize 
fully  the  need  of  minimizing  field  work,  on 
account  of  the  high  wages  exacted;  so  they 
aim  to  have  as  much  of  the  fabrication  pro- 
vided for  prior  to  shipment  as  conditions  will 
permit,  and  to  use  every  means  to  economize 
field  expense. 

As  a  general  proposition,  complete  plans 
and  specifications  covering  all  features  enter- 
ing into  building  structures  should  be  pre- 
pared prior  to  soliciting  bids ;  but  this  work 
must,  of  course,  be  done  by  men  thoroughly 
conversant  with  all  available  standards  and 
the  usual  practices  adopted  in  shops  which 
will  be  called  upon  to  submit  quotations  on 
the  work.  The  fact  that  these  detail  prices 


DETAIL  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  ?5 

may  be  solicited  by  a  general  contractor 
rather  than  by  those  who  prepare  the  plans 
has  no  material  bearing  upon  the  situation. 
It  is  particularly  important  that  structural 
steel  frames  should  be  designed,  insofar  as 
size  of  the  members  and  the  character  of  the 
connections  are  concerned,  before  quotations 
are  solicited,  for  it  is  only  in  this  way 
that  bids  can  be  secured  which  can  be  prop- 
erly compared,  and  a  structure  assured  that 
will  meet,  in  every  particular,  the  multi- 
plicity of  industrial  requirements.  The  same 
reasoning  holds  true  in  regard  to  all  other 
features  and,  of  course,  in  any  case  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  the  result  is  dependent  upon 
the  familiarity  of  the  architects  and  engi- 
neers with  the  work  in  hand. 

A  somewhat  special  condition  has  arisen 
as  a  result  of  the  rapid  strides  made  by  the 
reinforced-concrete  systems  for  the  construc- 
tion of  industrial  buildings,  and  it  is  likely 
to  be  several  years  before  an  established 
basis  of  procedure  can  be  definitely  laid 
down.  At  present  there  are  various  systems 
of  construction,  each  of  which  is  advocated 
by  one  or  more  contractors,  and  many  ad- 
mirable examples  of  their  work  can  be  cited. 
In  certain  cases  these  systems  are  patented, 


76  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

in  part  at  least,  and  the  building  of  large  re- 
inforced-concrete  structures  has  become  es- 
tablished as  a  thorough  specialty,  for  reasons 
which  are  too  well  understood  to  need  repe- 
tition here.  At  the  present  stage  of  devel- 
opment it  is  undoubtedly  desirable,  at  least 
in  connection  with  structures  of  consider- 
able magnitude,  to  prepare  plans  and  specifi- 
cations of  such  a  nature  that  the  reinforced- 
concrete  specialists  can  bid  upon  their  own 
detail  design  as  worked  up  to  meet  the  pro- 
posed conditions,  submitting  with  their  bid 
such  data  as  may  be  necessary  to  enable  a 
thorough  understanding  as  to  the  details  of 
the  proposed  system.  If  all  of  the  special- 
ists figured  upon  the  same  system,  this  course 
would  not  be  desirable,  and  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  at  no  very  distant  date  this  result,  with 
the  exception  of  minor  matters,  will  have 
been  reached. 

One  of  the  advantages  in  handling  the  pre- 
liminary work  in  the  thorough  manner  de- 
scribed is  that  the  buildings  can  be  designed 
with  a  full  knowledge  of  all  the  more  import- 
ant industrial  requirements,  so  avoiding 
subsequent  alterations,  cutting  of  pipe  open- 
ings, drilling  the  reinforced  concrete,  etc.; 
but  even  when  the  preliminary  work  is  prop- 


DETAIL  PLANS'  AND   SPECIFICATIONS  77 

erly  conducted  many  of  these  details  are 
likely  to  be  overlooked  unless  the  plans  and 
specifications  are  prepared  in  accordance 
with  a  carefully  arranged  schedule. 

D-i.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications  for 
yard  provisions  that  must  be  made  to  meet 
fixed  requirements. 

It  is  almost  always  necessary,  when  build- 
ing an  industrial  plant,  to  make  certain  in- 
stallations in  the  yard  area  between  or 
around  the  buildings,  but  insofar  as  this 
discussion  is  concerned,  these  matters  are  too 
intangible  for  detail  consideration. 

D-j.  Preparation  of  contracts  to  accompany  plans 
and  specifications  when  soliciting  bids,  so 
drawn  as  to  provide  proper  protection  for 
both  the  owner  and  the  contractor. 

A  separate  chapter  could  well  be  written 
upon  the  subject  covered  by  this  sub-heading, 
for  it  is  a  very  important  matter  to  have  the 
relations  of  owner  and  contractor  not  only 
clearly  established  insofar  as  the  actual 
scope  and  character  of  the  service  is  con- 
cerned, but  to  provide  adequate  protection 
to  both  parties  in  regard  to  the  legal  ques- 
tions that  may  arise  and  that  usually  assume 
somewhat  different  aspects  in  different 
States  or  cities.  When  arrangements  are 


78  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

being  consummated  for  the  performance  of  a 
large  and  complex  piece  of  work,  it  is  always 
desirable  to  have  prepared  a  contract  clearly 
defining  the  duties  of  the  various  parties 
and,  while  legal  advice  should  be  sought,  it  is 
important  that  the  papers  should  be  prima- 
rily drawn  to  define  a  mode  of  procedure 
which  actual  knowledge  as  to  the  work  re- 
quired dictates  as  being  the  most  efficient 
one.  A  form  of  contract  suitable  for  the 
erection  of  a  reinforced-concrete  building  is 
wholly  unadapated  in  many  of  its  clauses  to 
the  purchase  of  most  industrial  or  service 
equipment.  Often  a  standard  form  of  pur- 
chase order  is  all  that  is  required  when  con- 
tracting for  equipment  or  material  entering 
into  industrial  operations,  and  the  conduct 
of  a  large  enterprise  is  greatly  simplified 
when  the  awarding  of  contracts  and  purchas- 
ing of  material  is  in  the  hands  of  parties 
whose  judgment  in  regard  to  this  and  many 
other  matters  that  arise  is  guided  by  a  com- 
prehensive experience  gained  through  the  re- 
peated performance  of  such  service.  This 
question  of  the  letting  of  contracts  and  pro- 
viding of  equipment  and  materials  will  be 
taken  up  in  further  detail  in  later  chapters. 


CHAPTEK  V 

CONSTRUCTION     WORK     AND     INSTALLA- 
TION OF  EQUIPMENT 

D  USING  the  period  when  the  detail  plans 
and  specifications  are  in  course  of 
preparation,  a  clear  understanding  should  be 
reached  between  the  owner  and  the  engi- 
neering organization  as  to  the  procedure  that 
will  be  followed  in  connection  with  the  actual 
construction  of  the  buildings  and  installation 
of  equipment. 

The  customary  method  is  to  submit  the 
plans  and  specifications  for  bids  to  respon- 
sible concerns  who  are  in  a  position  to  handle 
the  various  classes  of  work,  and  when  this 
plan  is  to  be  followed  it  is  only  necessary  to 
determine  what  policy  shall  be  adopted  in 
regard  to  the  letting  of  the  work  in  either 
large  or  small  units.  Certain  engineering 
companies  organized  to  handle  the  prelim- 
inary and  detail  engineering  work  that  have 
been  described,  have  construction  depart- 

79 


80  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

ments  perfected  with  a  view  to  taking  direct 
charge  of  the  erection  of  buildings  and  instal- 
lation of  equipment.  When  such  a  company 
is  employed  its  construction  organization  of- 
fers a  second  method  for  the  handling  of  this 
part  of  the  work.  Occasionally  an  owner  de- 
cides to  carry  out  through  his  own  force  the 
work  illustrated  and  described  by  the  engi- 
neers '  plans  and  specifications,  this  being  the 
third  plan  that  is  possible. 

Owing  to  the  widely  diversified  conditions 
incident  to  different  industrial  organizations 
and  properties,  each  of  the  methods  referred 
to  can  be  advantageously  adopted  under 
different  circumstances.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  the  third  plan,  viz.,  the  direct 
assumption  by  the  owner  of  entire  responsi- 
bility for  the  construction  of  the  work,  is 
becoming  less  frequent  and  is  desirable  only 
where  the  nature  of  the  industry  to  be  housed 
is  such  as  to  necessitate  the  maintenance  of  a 
construction  force  organized  to  handle  work 
along  essentially  the  same  lines  as  that  pre- 
sented when  building  a  new  plant.  The 
amount  of  work  that  has  as  yet  been  handled 
in  accordance  with  the  second  method  is  com- 
paratively small,  although  probably  now 
amounting  to  several  million  dollars  an- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  INSTALLATION       81 

nually,  as  there  are  only  a  few  organizations 
that  are  prepared  to  render  jointly  thorough 
engineering  and  construction  service.  There 
are  many  reasons,  however,  several  of  which 
will  be  pointed  out  later,  that  make  it  very 
desirable  at  times  to  place  entire  responsi- 
bility for  the  planning  and  building  of  indus- 
trial plants  in  a  single  company,  so  that  there 
is  no  doubt  that  an  increasing  number  of  the 
competent  engineering  organizations  will 
create  construction  departments,  and  ulti- 
mately it  is  not  unlikely  that  industrial  work 
through  the  building  period  will  be  divided 
about  equally  between  operations  that  are  let 
by  contract  and  supervised  by  the  engineers, 
and  those  that  are  handled  in  their  entirety 
by  engineering  organizations  having  their 
own  construction  departments. 

In  order  that  the  procedure  in  each  case 
may  be  generally  understood  we  will  con- 
sider the  subject  under  the  six  sub-divisions 
contained  in  the  classification  appearing  in 
the  first  chapter. 

I  will  first  deal  with  the  more  familiar 
method  of  letting  the  work  by  contract,  the 
supervision  being  exercised  by  the  engineer- 
ing organization  which  prepared  the  plans 
and  specifications. 


82  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

C-a.  Selection  of  responsible  concerns  to  bid  upon 
plans  and  specifications  and  securing  bids 
from  such  parties. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  when  new  indus- 
trial plants  or  large  extensions  to  existing 
properties  are  built,  it  is  advisable  to  secure 
bids  upon  the  complete  building  or  buildings 
rather  than  separate  bids  on  the  various  fea- 
tures of  the  structures  such  as  the  concrete 
work,  steel  work,  brick  work,  and  mill  work. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  architect  or 
engineer  whose  organization  does  not  include 
a  construction  department,  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  be  conversant  with  the  problems 
that  confront  the  general  contractor,  nor  be 
responsible  for  matters  the  proper  attention 
to  which  demands  a  totally  different  char- 
acter of  organization.  It  is,  however,  im- 
perative, if  an  expeditious  and  economical 
result  is  to  be  secured,  that  responsibility  for 
the  building  work  as  a  whole  should  be  cen- 
tered in  a  single  company. 

One  of  the  important  functions  performed 
by  a  competent  engineering  organization  is 
the  selection  of  responsible  bidders  for  the 
buildings  and  other  features  of  the  plant, 
and  while  the  owner's  desire  in  this  regard 
should  be  sought  and  carefully  weighed,  the 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  INSTALLATION       83 

owner  should  be  careful  not  to  influence  his 
engineers  to  too  great  an  extent  unless  quite 
certain  of  his  ground.  Repeated  experience 
with  many  contracting  firms  of  varied  finan- 
cial responsibilities,  located  possibly  in 
widely  different  sections  of  the  country, 
trains  the  engineer  rapidly  in  the  problem 
of  making  wise  selections,  and  his  grounds 
are  often  of  so  subtle  a  nature  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  satisfy  his  principals  thoroughly  as 
to  the  correctness  of  his  judgment.  This 
matter  is  one  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
the  policy  and  procedure  followed  in  regard 
to  it  by  a  given  organization  is  a  direct 
measure  of  their  business  ability  and  impar- 
tiality. It  is  not  only  eminently  unfair  to 
ask  contractors  or  manufacturers  to  figure 
upon  work  when  it  is  practically  a  foregone 
conclusion  that  it  will  not  be  awarded  to 
them,  but  such  methods  (even  if  uncon- 
sciously sanctioned)  soon  result  in  a  knowl- 
edge by  those  who  bid  that  a  strictly  square 
deal  is  not  always  forthcoming,  so  they  not 
only  take  little  pains  to  figure  closely,  but 
sometimes  intentionally  submit  high  figures. 
Therefore,  this  must  be  taken  into  careful 
account  by  the  owner  when  selecting  his  en- 
gineers. The  engineering  organization,  on 


84  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  other  hand,  should  be  equally  firm,  during 
their  relations  with  their  respective  clients, 
and  stand  absolutely  for  a  clean-cut  policy 
that  is  as  fair  to  those  who  bid  upon  the  work 
as  to  the  owner. 

Occasionally  it  may  be  desirable  to  include, 
in  the  general  contract,  the  service  equip- 
ment, that  is,  the  equipment  required  for 
lighting,  heating,  sanitation,  water  supply, 
fire  protection,  elevators,  and  any  other  ap- 
paratus required  to  make  the  building  itself 
complete  in  all  respects,  irrespective  of  the 
special  manufacturing  apparatus.  Usually, 
however,  these  features  can  be  let  more  ad- 
vantageously as  separate  units,  for  each  of 
them  is  sufficiently  definite  to  obviate  the 
likelihood  of  either  overlapping  of  work  or 
failure  to  contract  for  all  essential  details. 
All  that  has  been  said  previously  in  regard 
to  the  selection  of  bidders  is  particularly  per- 
tinent to  the  equipment  features,  although  it 
must  be  understood  that  it  is  necessary  in 
many  instances  to  secure  bids  on  apparatus 
of  different  types  in  order  to  obtain  the 
manufacturers '  guarantees  as  to  perform- 
ance, which  data,  along  with  the  actual  bids, 
form  the  basis  for  decision  as  to  the  particu- 
lar equipment  best  suited  to  the  conditions. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  INSTALLATION       85 

As  an  illustration,  it  is  occasionally  desirable 
to  secure  bids  on  both  reciprocating  engines 
and  steam  turbines,  as  rapidly  changing  con- 
ditions may  make  the  use  of  data  and  bids 
previously  secured  an  unsafe  basis. 

C-b.  Tabulation  of  bids,  conference  with  owner,  fol- 
lowed by  placing  of  contracts. 

When  asking  for  bids  on  a  building  or 
buildings,  it  is  almost  always  desirable  to  re- 
quire the  bidders  to  present  alternate  figures 
covering  certain  features  in  which  two  or 
more  different  methods  or  types  of  apparatus 
should  be  considered,  and  also  to  have  in- 
cluded unit  prices  covering  such  classes  of 
work  as  footings,  brick  work,  etc.,  so  that 
charges  or  credits  can  be  figured  upon  an 
agreed  basis  in  event  of  modifications  in  the 
plans.  Owners  and  engineers  as  well  are 
prone  to  underestimate  the  amount  of  time 
that  is  required  to  prepare,  intelligently  and 
accurately,  a  bid  relating  to  a  considerable 
piece  of  work,  including  possibly  a  great 
number  of  alternate  figures  and  unit  prices, 
so  that  very  frequently  an  insufficient 
amount  of  time  is  given  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  obvious  that  bidders  who  are  compelled  to 
rush  through  their  estimates  will  "play 
safe,"  and  the  resulting  figures  will  be  un- 


86 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


duly  high.  This  should  be  guarded  against, 
especially  in  connection  with  all  the  more  im- 
portant negotiations. 

It  is  equally  important  that  time  should 
be  allowed  for  a  careful  tabulation  of  bids 
before  any  conclusions  are  drawn,  for  first 
impressions  are  almost  always  based  on  the 
main  lump-sum  figures,  whereas  very  often 
a  study  of  the  tabulated  data  (including,  in 
addition  to  the  figures  already  referred  to, 
time  for  completion,  and,  if  the  bids  relate 
to  equipment,  efficiencies  of  operation  and 
detail  descriptions  of  construction  features) 
prompts  an  entire  rearrangement  of  the 
bidders  insofar  as  the  desirability  of  their 
proposals  is  concerned. 

After  the  tabulated  bids  have  been  sub- 
jected to  the  proper  study,  the  engineers  not 
infrequently  find  it  necessary  to  confer  with 
the  concerns  that  have  submitted  them,  and 
the  question  of  price  should  be  carefully  gone 
over,  each  bidder  being  given  an  equal  op- 
portunity to  better  his  quotation,  either  in 
accordance  with  the  original  or  modified 
specifications,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  en- 
gineer then  draws  his  own  conclusions  and 
confers  with  the  owner,  securing  finally  the 
authorization  to  close  up  the  transaction. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   INSTALLATION  87 

So  much  for  the  various  contracts  con- 
sidered individually.  Considered  jointly, 
however,  it  is  evident  that  they  bear  an  inter- 
relation to  each  other  in  so  far  as  construc- 
tion and  installation  of  equipment  are  con- 
cerned, that  must  be  taken  into  careful  ac- 
count in  order  that  the  work  may  go  forward 
uninterruptedly  and  without  one  contractor 
interfering  with  the  work  of  another,  or 
doing  work  which  must  at  a  later  date  be 
undone.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  a  sched- 
ule must  be  prepared  in  advance,  showing 
the  order  in  which  the  contracts  are  to  be 
let,  unless  the  operation  and  incidental  con- 
ditions are  such  that  the  soliciting  of  bids 
can  be  postponed  until  plans,  specifications, 
and  contracts  are  completed  and  can  go  out 
simultaneously. 

C-c.  Superintendence  of  building  construction  and 
yard  work. 

There  is  no  period  in  connection  with  the 
building  of  industrial  plants  when  strict  at- 
tention to  details  and  at  the  same  time  a 
broad  grasp  of  the  work  as  a  whole  is  more 
imperative  than  when  the  field  work  is  going 
forward.  Much  depends  upon  the  foresight 
that  is  shown  by  the  engineer  in  his  selection 


88  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

of  a  superintendent  of  construction,  although 
in  the  final  analysis  the  policy  must  be  die1 
tated  from  the  home  office,  where  control 
must  be  centered.  This  is  usually  a  particu- 
larly trying  time  for  all  concerned;  for  if  it 
is  a  new  industrial  plant,  or  more  especially 
an  extension  to  an  existing  property,  the 
owner  is  not  only  eager  to  have  the  work 
completed  so  that  operations  can  be  com- 
menced, but  only  too  often  cannot  resist  the 
temptation  to  take  a  hand  in  the  construction 
work.  He  cannot  have  a  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive grasp  of  the  problem  to  realize  that 
in  order  to  promote  the  work  as  a  whole  ex- 
peditiously,  many  minor  conditions  are 
bound  to  develop  which,  considered  individ- 
ually, may  appear  to  have  been  unnecessary 
and  wasteful.  However,  the  very  nature  of 
construction  work  is  such  that  the  most  the 
engineer  can  hope  to  do  is  to  minimize  minor 
troubles,  and  the  owner  must  measure  the 
success  of  the  work  by  the  final  result.  The 
locomotive  engineer  does  not  stop  his  train 
if  his  gauge  glass  is  broken,  but  gets  along 
with  the  gauge  cocks  on  the  water  column 
until  a  suitable  time  to  make  repairs.  The 
owner  who  endeavors  to  dictate  during  the 
construction  period  without  having  a  proper 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   INSTALLATION  89 

grasp  of  the  problem  as  a  whole  may  readily 
delay  the  entire  work,  very  much  as  would 
the  inexperienced  locomotive  engineer  who 
brings  his  train  to  a  standstill  in  order  to 
take  care  of  a  minor  matter,  attention  to 
which  should  not  interfere  with  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  principal  object  in  view. 

In  the  past  the  tendency  among  architects 
and  engineers  (and  owners  as  well)  has  been 
too  often  to  look  upon  contractors  collectively 
and  individually  as  parties  whose  interests 
are  so  diametrically  opposed  to  those  of  the 
owner  as  to  warrant  an  attitude  of  perpetual 
suspicion  toward  them,  which  the  same  archi- 
tect or  engineer  would  not  countenance  for 
a  moment  toward  manufacturers  of  appa- 
ratus and  materials.  There  are,  of  course, 
unscrupulous  contractors,  just  as  there  are 
unscrupulous  engineers  and  architects,  and 
the  contractor  has  conditions  to  contend  with, 
owing  to  his  financial  requirements,  that 
unfortunately  have  frequently  prompted 
methods  which  should  not  be  permitted.  All 
these  matters  should  be  taken  into  account 
by  the  engineer  prior  to  selecting  his  list 
of  bidders,  and  thereafter  in  his  business 
dealings  he  should  recognize  in  the  contrac- 
tor to  whom  the  buildings  have  been 


90  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

awarded  a  man  confronted  with  problems, 
if  not  as  technical  as  those  with  which  he 
himself  deals,  yet  much  more  subtle  and  re- 
quiring for  their  proper  accomplishment 
forceful  methods  which  would  not  be  appro- 
priate in  the  drawing  room  or  the  shops  of 
an  organized  industry. 

C-d.  Superintendence  of  installation  of  "service 
equipment"  and  all  standard  and  special 
machinery  or  appliances  needed  for  indus- 
trial purposes. 

Usually,  if  the  plant  is  a  large  one,  a  su- 
perintendent of  construction  especially  ex- 
perienced in  mechanical  and  electrical  mat- 
ters should  be  employed  during  the  installa- 
tion of  the  power-plant  equipment  and  special 
machinery.  Very  frequently  the  engineer's 
recommendations  in  regard  to  equipment  are 
accepted  by  the  owner  wholly  upon  the  state- 
ments that  have  been  made  to  him,  and  the 
best  interests  of  all  concerned  can  be  as- 
sured only  through  the  engineer  taking  the 
initiative  in  the  starting  up  of  such  equip- 
ment, having  demonstrators  on  hand  if  their 
presence  is  desirable  and  making  such  tests 
as  are  required  in  order  to  substantiate  his 
original  statements.  The  owner  who  con- 
tends that  one  superintendent  of  construe- 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   INSTALLATION  91 

tion,  with,  assistants  of  comparatively 
limited  experience,  can  properly  look  after 
the  buildings  of  a  large  industrial  plant,  ar- 
gues directly  against  his  own  best  interests. 

C-c.  Checking  work  as  to  quality  and  amount  and 
approving  invoices. 

The  checking  of  work  as  to  quality  and 
amount  commences  almost  simultaneously 
with  the  field  work,  and  must  be  provided 
for  through  a  system  of  records  and  definite 
plans  of  procedure  which  experience  will 
have  indicated  as  desirable  for  the  different 
sections  of  the  operation.  The  plans  and 
specifications  must  be  in  sufficient  detail  to 
enable  the  superintendent  of  construction  to 
inspect  decisively  materials  as  they  arrive, 
except  where  shop  inspections  or  laboratory 
tests  are  required  (illustrated  by  the  inspec- 
tions made  at  plants  where  steel  is  fabri- 
cated, or  in  laboratories  where  samples  from 
each  shipment  of  cement  are  forwarded  for 
testing  purposes).  In  such  cases  provision 
must,  of  course,  be  made  for  immediately 
notifying  the  superintendent  of  construction, 
through  the  home  office,  of  the  results  that 
have  been  obtained. 

Following  the  inspection  of  materials 
comes  the  inspection  of  work,  and  finally  the 


92  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

inspection  of  performance  where  operating 
mechanisms  are  erected.  The  system  at  the 
home  office  must  be  such  that  all  reports  as 
they  are  received  are  properly  filed  with  the 
contract  or  order  to  which  they  apply. 

C-f.  Certifying  as  to  completion  of  contracts. 

The  engineer  in  charge  of  the  work  (who 
should  preferably  be  the  man  in  whose  hands 
the  chief  engineer  has  placed  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  plans  and  specifications)  must 
co-operate  with  the  superintendent  of  con- 
struction in  the  preparation  of  estimates  as 
to  the  work  completed  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  various  contracts  and  orders 
and,  of  course,  all  the  records  regarding  re- 
ceipt of  materials,  inspection,  tests,  etc.,  must 
be  taken  into  account  when  certifying  as  to 
the  payments  that  are  due. 

The  foregoing  covers  the  principal  points 
upon  which  the  success  of  a  construction 
operation  depends  when  the  various  features 
of  the  work  are  awarded  to  contractors,  and 
the  field  work  in  all  of  its  phases  is  directed 
by  the  engineer  who  prepared  the  plans  and 
specifications.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
take  up  in  the  same  detail  the  procedure  that 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  INSTALLATION       93 

is  desirable  when  the  construction  work  is 
handled  by  the  engineering  organization  that 
prepared  the  detail  plans  and  specifications, 
as  this  would  in  part  result  in  a  repetition 
of  what  has  already  been  said.  It  will  be 
necessary,  however,  to  compare  the  methods 
of  compensation  that  are  usual  and  desirable 
in  the  respective  cases,  and  to  define  ap- 
proximately the  conditions  under  which  the 
contract  method  or  the  handling  of  the  work 
directly  by  the  engineering  organization 
works  out  most  advantageously.  After  all, 
these  are  the  two  points  in  which  the  owner 
is  most  interested;  and  if  those  who  are 
prepared  to  render  both  the  engineering  and 
construction  service  strictly  limit  themselves 
to  one  or  both  branches  of  the  work,  accord- 
ing as  conditions  may  indicate  to  be  best, 
the  advantages  that  the  assumption  of  the 
entire  responsibilities  offer  will  be  empha- 
sized and  much  more  work  will  be  done  on 
this  basis  than  at  present. 

In  the  first  place  it  must  be  taken  for 
granted  that  only  such  engineering  organiza- 
tions as  have  proved  themselves  competent 
to  handle  construction  work  will  be  consid- 
ered, and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  issue  is 
definitely  presented  only  when  the  firm  which 


94  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

has  prepared  the  detail  plans  and  specifica- 
tions happens  to  have  had  this  requisite  ex- 
perience. 

The  procedure  in  this  case  differs  from 
that  followed  when  the  work  is  let  by  con- 
tract, in  that  the  engineering  organization, 
instead  of  sending  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions to  construction  companies,  will  have 
prepared  in  its  own  office  accurate  bills  of 
material  and  secure  first-hand  competitive 
prices,  many  of  which  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  obtain  in  the  market  adjacent  to  the  lo- 
cality of  the  new  plant.  Schedules  of  all 
the  bids  are  prepared,  and  on  each  impor- 
tant purchase  the  owner's  approval  should 
be  secured  before  a  contract  or  order  is  fi- 
nally awarded.  The  question  of  order  of 
work  is  of  even  more  importance  than  when 
the  engineer  merely  superintends  the  con- 
struction, for  the  manner  in  which  every  part 
of  the  work  progresses  depends  in  the  final 
analysis  upon  the  foresight  displayed  in  an- 
ticipating requirements. 

The  man  to  whom  the  field  work  is  dele- 
gated, is  responsible  for  the  employment, 
through  his  foreman,  of  all  common  and 
skilled  labor,  and  the  superintendence  of  the 
work  becomes  the  function  of  a  member  of 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   INSTALLATION  95 

the  engineering  organization,  preferably  of 
the  engineer  who  was  in  direct  charge  of  the 
preparation  of  plans  and  specifications.  This 
man  will  have  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
purchase  of  the  principal  materials  and 
equipment  entering  into  the  operation,  and 
consequently  has  an  intimacy  with  the  entire 
project  that  proves  of  the  utmost  value  dur- 
ing his  later  service  as  superintendent.  The 
engineering  organization  is,  of  course,  re- 
sponsible for  providing  the  necessary  con- 
struction equipment,  and,  in  fact,  assumes 
charge  of  the  entire  operation  in  its  every 
aspect,  for  it  is  the  advantage  this  condition 
offers  that  usually  makes  such  an  arrange- 
ment so  desirable. 

The  only  feasible  bases  upon  which  to  re- 
munerate an  engineering  organization  for 
such  service  are  a  fixed  fee  or  percentage 
of  the  actual  cost,  for  the  economies  effected 
through  the  competitive  purchase  of  all  ma- 
terials just  at  the  time  they  are  needed,  di- 
rectly from  those  who  can  quote  the  lowest 
prices,  should  accrue  to  the  owner.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  owner  is,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  handling  his  own  construction 
work,  having  engaged  for  this  purpose  a 
corps  of  specialists  much  as  he  would  engage 


96  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

experts  in  connection  with  the  conduct  of  his 
own  industrial  work.  The  services  rendered 
by  the  engineering  organization  should  be 
considered  in  no  wise  less  professional  than 
the  work  previously  performed  by  them,  re- 
sulting in  the  plans  and  specifications. 

The  materials  would  be  purchased,  under 
such  an  arrangement,  at  quite  as  favorable 
terms  as  could  be  secured  by  a  contractor, 
and  an  equally  satisfactory  basis  arrived  at 
concerning  the  employment  of  skilled  and 
common  labor.  At  the  same  time  the  actual 
assembling  of  these  materials  into  the  final 
structures  and  the  installation  of  the  equip- 
ment would  be  under  the  direct  control  of 
those  who  know  the  exact  reason  for  the 
provision  of  every  single  feature;  and  their 
knowledge  of  future  operating  conditions  en- 
ables them  to  exercise  an  intelligent  discre- 
tion that  should  result  in  a  more  harmonious 
whole  than  could  result  solely  through  a  lit- 
eral adherence  to  the  most  elaborate  specifi- 
cations. 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  in  defense  of 
both  the  "  lump-sum "  and  "  percentage " 
methods  of  handling  construction  work,  and 
it  is  not  proposed  to  enter  into  this  discus- 
sion in  these  papers.  It  has  been  assumed, 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   INSTALLATION  97 

when  discussing  the  plan  of  building  indus- 
trial plants  by  contract,  that  the  engineers 
would  exercise  conservative  judgment  as  to 
the  basis  of  compensating  the  various  con- 
tractors. There  are  certain  instances  where 
the  percentage  or  fixed-fee  plan  is  the  only 
one  that  is  at  all  feasible,  viz.,  where  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  foresee  with  accuracy 
the  conditions  that  will  be  encountered,  or 
where  speed  is  a  matter  of  paramount  im- 
portance. Then  again,  there  are  other  con- 
ditions which  as  definitely  call  for  the  lump- 
sum  basis.  The  conditions  are  radically 
different,  however,  when  the  construction 
work  is  handled  by  an  engineering  organiza- 
tion, for  whatever  advantages  the  lump-sum 
method  may  offer  are  outweighed  by  those 
resulting  from  the  direct  assumption  of  the 
owner's  interests,  secured  through  the  fixed- 
fee  or  percentage  plan. 

When  speed  is  of  primary  importance  the 
work  can  often  be  greatly  expedited  by  fol- 
lowing the  plan  now  in  question,  as  certain 
features  of  the  construction  work  can  be 
commenced  some  time  before  the  completion 
of  the  final  plans  and  specifications.  This 
method  is  always  preferable  where  it  is  im- 
perative that  the  owner  should  have  direct 


98  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

control  of  the  construction  work,  as  when  an 
extension  is  being  built  to  an  existing  plant 
and  the  field  work  must  be  subordinated  to 
the  requirements  of  manufacture. 

Before  concluding  these  remarks  regarding 
this  method  of  procedure,  attention  should 
be  directed  to  the  necessity  for  thorough  ex- 
perience under  just  these  conditions  on  the 
part  of  those  who  undertake  this  plan  of 
work,  for,  unless  this  is  the  case,  a  situation 
may  easily  develop  that  results  in  losses  far 
exceeding  any  advantages  that  may  have  been 
obtained.  One  of  the  first  requisites  is  a 
system  whereby  the  entire  costs  of  the  work 
will  be  properly  classified  and  reported  on 
cost  sheets  where  an  immediate  comparison 
can  be  made  with  the  original  estimate  that 
was  approved  by  the  owner.  Statements 
should  be  presented  to  the  owner  monthly, 
showing  the  exact  status  of  each  subdivision 
of  the  work,  giving  the  amount  of  the  original 
estimate,  the  money  that  has  been  paid  or  is 
due  for  this  same  subdivision,  and  the  obliga- 
tion that  may  have  been  incurred  but  is  not 
yet  due. 

Every  change  in  the  plans  authorized  by 
the  owner,  whether  of  minor  or  major  import- 
ance, or  whether  adding  to  or  deducting 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  INSTALLATION       99 

from  the  amount  of  work  covered  by  the  esti- 
mate, should  be  accurately  put  on  record  with 
just  as  much  care  as  would  be  displayed  by 
the  lump-sum  contractor.  The  original  esti- 
mate should  be  modified  accordingly  and  the 
owner's  approval  of  the  change  secured,  thus 
obviating  any  misunderstanding  as  to  the 
estimated  total  outlay.  Probably  lack  of 
attention  to  this  matter  has  done  more  to 
create  a  prejudice  against  percentage  work 
than  any  other  factor,  for  only  too  often  have 
owners  been  seriously  misled  as  to  the  dis- 
bursement that  will  be  required,  because  of 
failure  to  place  properly  on.  record  the  cost 
of  changes  or  additions  authorized  during  the 
construction  period. 

Practically  all  the  reasons  advanced  in 
favor  of  the  preparation  of  detail  plans  and 
specifications  by  engineering  organizations, 
rather  than  by  engineers  that  may  be  in  the 
employ  of  an  industrial  company,  apply  in 
the  case  of  the  handling  of  construction  work 
by  construction  organizations  that  do  noth- 
ing else,  as  opposed  to  a  force  of  men  brought 
together  for  this  purpose  by  an  industrial 
company  and  directed  by  them.  Unless  the 
routine  conduct  of  the  industrial  company's 
affairs  includes  as  one  of  its  functions  the 


100  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

maintenance  of  a  construction  force  organ- 
ized specifically  for  such  work,  the  only  way 
that  they  can  directly  control  the  operation 
in  a  broad  manner  and  at  the  same  time 
expect  an  efficient  result  is  to  retain  a 
thoroughly  organized  force  of  experts  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  manner  that  has  been  out- 
lined. 


CHAPTEE  VI 

PEEIOD      OF      OCCUPATION 
AND   COMMENCEMENT  OF  OPERATION 

T  T  has  been  customary  for  industrial  mana- 
-*•  gers  who  are  confronted  with  the  neces- 
sity for  providing  new  quarters  for  the  con- 
duct of  their  business  to  handle  directly  all 
matters  incidental  to  the  period  of  occupa- 
tion and  commencement  of  operations.  This 
procedure  was  necessary  so  long  as  it  was 
not  possible  to  engage  engineering  firms  ex- 
perienced in  the  solution  of  the  industrial 
problems  covered  by  the  Chapters  II  and  III. 
When  the  owner,  himself,  had  to  determine 
the  extent  and  character  of  the  plant,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  work  incidental  to  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  buildings  was  also  incumbent 
upon  him.  He  can  now,  however,  be  relieved 
of  this  detail  and  in  addition  benefit  through 
the  experience  of  others,  if  competent  indus- 
trial engineers  are  placed  in  charge  of  the 
entire  undertaking. 

101 


102  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

M-a.  Moving  equipment  flfnd  accessories  from  old 
plant  into  the  new,  transferring  force,  and 
starting  up  work. 

Each  commission  presents  special  condi- 
tions which  must  be  taken  into  account  when 
moving  from  an  old  plant  into  a  new  one, 
or  when  rearranging  departments  and  equip- 
ment in  existing  quarters  with  a  view  to  oc- 
cupying extensions  that  have  been  built. 
Usually  this  work  can  be  done  to  best  advan- 
tage in  a  very  gradual  manner,  and  yet  it 
should  be  pushed  forward  decisively  and  in 
accordance  with  a  carefully  predetermined 
plan. 

Eeference  has  been  made  previously  to 
the  manner  in  which  all  the  work  incident  to 
the  building  of  a  plant  should  be  scheduled, 
and  this  applies  also  to  the  various  pro- 
visions that  must  be  made  in  connection  with 
the  occupation  of  the  property.  The  building 
details  should  be  laid  out  in  the  beginning 
not  only  to  allow  for  the  erection  of  line 
shafting,  conveying  apparatus,  or  other 
equipment  that  is  attached  to  the  structures, 
but  wherever  possible  all  auxiliary  parts 
should  be  made  and  put  in  place  or  assem- 
bled to  assure  their  correctness  prior  to  the 
disturbance  of  conditions  in  the  old  plant. 


OCCUPATION  AND  STARTING  OF  WORK          103 

Important  details  are  almost  sure  to  be  over- 
looked unless  a  careful  study  is  made  in  ad- 
vance and  some  form  of  graphical  routing 
diagram  prepared.  Every  effort  should  be 
made  to  have  installed  all  new  machinery, 
including  cranes,  industrial  railways,  eleva- 
tors, conveyors,  and  process  equipment,  well 
in  advance  of  the  moving  period,  for  it  is 
chiefly  in  regard  to  these  that  some  difficul- 
ties may  be  encountered,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  complete  familiarity  with  correct  methods 
of  operation.  The  situation  at  this  time  is 
similar  to  the  period  given  up  to  the  pre- 
liminary service,  in  that  a  more  speedy  con- 
summation of  the  entire  work  is  attained 
through  deferring  the  actual  moving  until 
every  detail  is  attended  to,  just  as  the  detail 
plans  and  specifications  can  be  prepared  in 
much  less  time  if  the  manner  of  satisfying 
the  requirements  of  the  business  are  defin- 
itely fixed  in  advance.  In  each  case  it  re- 
quires a  thorough  appreciation  of  this  fact 
to  avoid  a  procedure  that  may  be  expected  to 
expedite  completion,  but  in  reality  may  cause 
complication  and  delay  and  therefore  addi- 
tional cost. 

The  nature  of  some  businesses  is  such  that 
it  is  imperative,  if  an  entirely  new  plant  is 


104  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

to  be  occupied,  to  suspend  all  productive 
work  while  moving;  but  more  frequently  the 
departments  can  be  moved  separately  so  that 
during  the  transition  period  the  work  will 
be  divided  between  the  old  plant  and  the  new. 
Of  course,  the  proximity  of  the  old  and  new 
properties  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
procedure  and  when  the  new  quarters  are 
on  an  adjoining  site,  being  but  an  extension 
to  the  plant,  the  simplest  condition  prevails. 

M-b.  Correcting  minor  discrepancies  that  invariably 
evidence  themselves  after  the  plant  as  a 
whole  is  put  into  operation. 

Minor  errors  in  judgment  or  discrepancies 
in  the  working  plans  invariably  crop  up 
during  the  building  of  a  large  industrial 
plant,  and  these  are  of  course,  corrected  by 
the  engineers  during  the  building  period. 
It  is  on  account  of  the  familiarity  these  en- 
gineers have  with  structural  details  that  they 
should  in  all  cases  superintend  the  actual 
construction  work. 

If  the  engineers  perform  the  preliminary 
industrial  work  and  make  the  equipment  lay- 
outs, their  co-operation  is  especially  neces- 
sary as  it  is  difficult  for  even  experienced 
men  to  anticipate  all  the  conditions  that 
should  govern  the  exact  location  of  every 


OCCUPATION  AND  STARTING  OF   WORK  105 

machine,  fixture,  or  piece  of  auxiliary  appa- 
ratus, and  the  one  who  made  the  initial 
studies  is  likely  to  discern  most  quickly 
wherein  they  can  be  improved. 

While  the  details  to  which  reference  has 
just  been  made  may  be  comparatively  unim- 
portant when  considered  individually,  in  the 
aggregate  they  may  have  a  very  material 
bearing  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  plant. 

M-c.  Training  the  force  of  administrators  and  op- 
erators along  the  lines  necessary  to  bring 
about  the  most  efficient  utilization  of  build- 
ings and  other  facilities  provided. 

It  is  invariably  the  hope  of  those  who  build 
new  industrial  plants  or  large  extensions  to 
existing  properties,  that  the  work  of  manu- 
facture will  be  conducted  somewhat  more 
efficiently  under  the  new  conditions  than  was 
previously  possible,  and  as  in  some  cases  this 
is  the  principal  motive  that  prompts  the 
building  work,  it  is  evident  that  interest  in 
the  proposition  as  a  whole  must  not  be  al- 
lowed to  flag  as  construction  nears  comple- 
tion, but  should  rather  be  stimulated  as  the 
time  approaches  when  the  merits  of  the  lay- 
out can  be  measured. 

A  plant  that  has  been  in  operation  for  a 
considerable  period  is  almost  certain  to  pre- 


106  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

sent  a  number  of  marked  physical  drawbacks, 
which  cannot  be  corrected  through  methods 
of  administration.  Such  matters  will  be  cor- 
rected of  necessity  if  the  preliminary  work 
is  conducted  in  the  manner  previously  de- 
scribed. However,  the  increase  in  efficiency 
should  be  much  greater  than  is  possible 
through  the  correction  of  these  inherent  dis- 
advantages presented  by  the  plant  itself. 

I  refer  to  the  results  that  should  be  secured 
through  establishing  conditions  favorable  to 
the  most  appropriate  system  of  management 
for  the  plant,  conditions  which  to  some  ex- 
tent affect  the  layout  of  the  plant  as  a 
whole  and  the  character  of  the  buildings,  but 
which  as  a  rule  have  to  do  more  particularly 
with  the  internal  arrangement  of  depart- 
ments and  equipment,  the  various  enclosures 
required  for  shop  offices,  tool  rooms,  stores 
departments;  the  special  bins,  racks  and 
other  auxiliary  appliances  required  in  these 
departments ;  the  provisions  for  checking  em- 
ployees in  and  out  of  the  plant,  etc.  If  the 
preliminary  work  has  been  properly  per- 
formed, the  buildings  will  have  been  so 
planned  that  all  these  detail  arrangements 
can  be  made,  but  during  tha  pressure  of  the 
early  work  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  en- 


OCCUPATION  AND  STARTING  OF  WORK        107 

gineers  to  inform  the  owner  of  the  multi- 
plicity of  reasons  that  dictate  certain  recom- 
mendations, much  less  record  them  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  owner  and  his  people  could 
carry  them  out  successfully.  I  do  not  mean 
to  imply  that  the  engineers  should  not  secure 
their  principals '  full  approval  of  their  work, 
but  rather  that  the  approval  is  secured  with- 
out elaborating  upon  many  of  the  factors 
with  which  we  are  dealing  now,  and  which 
often  do  not  influence  greatly  the  character 
of  the  buildings  proper. 

An  increasing  number  of  industrial  mana- 
gers are  constantly  seeking. the  co-operation 
of  men  who  specialize  upon  the  broad  sub- 
ject of  industrial  management.  These  mana- 
gers are  necessarily  men  of  initiative,  who 
are  willing  to  face  problems  of  reorganiza- 
tion and  the  need  of  physical  changes  in  ar- 
rangement of  equipment,  stores  departments, 
and  so  on,  owing  to  their  implicit  confidence 
in  the  wisdom  of  taking  advantage  of  every 
advance  in  administrative  methods  that  has 
a  proved  value.  Even  managers  who  may 
not  be  willing  to  admit  that  such  a  procedure 
as  has  been  outlined  will  be  wholly  beneficial 
in  their  case  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
agree  that  when  occupying  a  new  property 


108  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  desirability, 
and  in  many  instances  the  imperative  need, 
of  placing  the  entire  organization  upon  as 
economical  and  sound  a  basis  as  the  present 
status  of  industrial  affairs  allows. 

If  the  engineers  who  laid  out  the  new  plant 
are  themselves,  or  have  associated  with  them, 
men  who  are  acknowledged  authorities  in  the 
field  of  industrial  organization,  the  owner 
should  strive  to  profit  to  the  fullest  extent 
during  the  moving  period  by  encouraging 
them  to  advance  their  opinions  freely  in  re- 
gard to  the  manner  in  which  the  work  should 
be  conducted  for  which  the  plant  was  built. 
Of  course,  this  service  is  a  specialty  in  itself, 
and  not  necessarily  a  part  of  the  work  that 
must  be  performed  when  planning  and  build- 
ing an  industrial  plant,  other  than  to  the  ex- 
tent of  recognizing  broad  principles,  as  has 
been  previously  covered.  The  owner  is  for- 
tunate who  is  able  to  devote  attention  imme- 
diately to  the  perfection  of  the  system  of 
administering  his  plant  as  soon  as  it  is  occu- 
pied, for  then  the  greatest  possibilities  are 
presented. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ROUTING;    A    PEIME    FACTOR    IN    PLANT 
LAYOUT 

THE  primary  purpose  of  this  chapter  is 
to  call  attention  to  the  advantages  that 
can  be  derived  from  the  use  of  the  graphical 
routing  diagram  as  a  basis  for  the  planning 
of  industrial  plants.  This  diagram,  as  its 
name  implies,  indicates  the  paths  or  routes 
followed  by  the  materials  of  manufacture 
when  passing  from  their  crude  to  their  fin- 
ished state,  and  in  its  final  development  it 
absolutely  defines  the  plant  in  all  particu- 
lars of  layout. 

Many  industrial  plants  are  seriously  handi- 
capped through  the  fact  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  their  departments  and  equipment 
imposes  operating  expenses  that  are  almost 
prohibitive.  If  errors  are  made  in  the  se- 
lection of  certain  machines  or  other  detail 
features,  they  can  usually  be  corrected  at 
comparatively  small  expense.  On  the  other 
109 


110  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

hand,  if  the  arrangement  of  departments  and 
equipment,  and  therefore  the  character  of  the 
buildings,  has  been  incorrectly  solved,  the 
resulting  plant  may  be  such  as  practically  to 
prohibit  the  establishment  of  correct  condi- 
tions unless  a  very  great  monetary  loss  is  in- 
curred. It  is  becoming  generally  appreciated 
that  this  is  a  question  deserving  the  utmost 
consideration,  and  as  the  efficiency  of  a  given 
plant  is  governed  primarily  by  the  manner 
in  which  its  layout  is  worked  out,  a  method 
that  has  been  found  to  be  sound  would  appear 
to  merit  considerable  attention. 

The  first  step  when  preparing  to  lay  out 
an  industrial  plant  is,  of  course,  to  become 
thoroughly  conversant  with  all  the  manu- 
facturing requirements  imposed  by  the  par- 
ticular business  to  be  housed.  This  phase 
of  the  subject  was  discussed  at  considerable 
length  in  preceding  chapters.  When  working 
up  the  layout,  it  is  of  primary  importance 
that  all  these  detail  factors  should  be  con- 
sidered collectively  so  that  their  inter-rela- 
tionships can  be  properly  discerned.  The 
graphical  method  allows  of  this  more  readily 
than  any  other. 

Figure  1  is  presented  as  an  illustration  of 
the  routing  diagram  in  its  most  elemental 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR.  Ill 

form.*  It  pertains  to  a  series  of  conditions 
not  particularly  unlike  those  very  frequently 
presented.  In  the  upper  left-hand  corner  is 
shown  in  plan  a  factory  used  exclusively  for 
the  manufacture  of  pianos.  All  the  build- 
ings, except  the  one  marked  with  the  letter 
"F,"  were  in  existence  at  the  time  the  work 
was  undertaken.  The  object  in  view  was  the 
establishment  of  conditions  more  favorable 
to  economical  manufacture  of  pianos  than 
were  afforded  by  the  existing  layout,  which 
was  the  result  of  a  growth  extending  over 
many  years  but  not  in  accordance  with  any 
definite  plan  for  the  ultimate  development. 
In  addition,  a  very  material  increase  in  out- 
put was  to  be  provided  for.  The  product  con- 
sisted of  pianos  of  both  grand  and  upright 
types,  but  for  the  purpose  of  simplicity  the 
lines  on  the  diagram  have  been  drawn  in  for 
grand  pianos  only. 

A  grand  piano  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  principal  units,  only  seven  of  which  we 
need  consider.  The  essential  parts  of  five 
of  these,  viz. ;  the  top,  rast,  rast  bracing,  rim, 
and  keyboard,  are  made  of  lumber  and  so 
start  in  their  crude  shape  at  the  lumber  pile. 
The  plates  are  made  of  metal,  and  in  this 

*  Fig.  1  is  a  folding  insert  facing  page  112. 


112  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

case  the  preliminary  operations  were  per- 
formed in  a  shop  not  a  part  of  the  group 
of  buildings  in  question.  The  sounding 
boards  were  also  made  at  another  shop.  The 
location  of  the  main  lumber  storage  was  orig- 
inally as  shown  on  the  plan,  but  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  space  in  buildings  D,  C,  B  and  E 
was  quite  different  from  that  indicated.  The 
first  diagram  prepared  showed  as  accurately 
as  was  possible  the  manner  in  which  the  ma- 
terials progressed  through  the  plant  at  the 
time  of  the  initial  investigations,  and  a  study 
of  this  diagram  formed  the  basis  for  a  series 
of  revised  layouts.  These  showed  the  paths 
of  travel  in  two  directions  only,  from  floor  to 
floor  and  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  front 
property  line,  as  it  was  necessary  to  establish 
broad  relationships  before  taking  up  the 
routing  in  detail.  The  floor  space  required 
for  the  estimated  increase  in  output  was 
approximated  and,  as  buildings  D,  C,  B 
and  E  were  satisfactory  for  general  manu- 
facturing purposes,  it  was  found  to  be  prac- 
ticable to  dispose  of  their  floors  in  a  manner 
best  adapted  to  the  routing  of  the  product. 
The  studies  showed  the  desirability  of  ex- 
tending the  plant  at  the  point  indicated  on 
the  plan  by  building  F.  Finally,  diagrams 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR  113 

showing  the  various  floors  in  plan  were  pre- 
pared, but  insofar  as  is  allowed  by  a  diagram 
showing  routing  in  elevation  only,  the  final 
arrangement  is  shown  by  Figure  1.  The  se- 
quence of  the  principal  operations  is  indi- 
cated as  well  as  the  points  where  the  various 
units  are  assembled. 

While  a  diagram  which  is  carried  out  in 
no  greater  detail  than  Figure  1  gives  com- 
paratively little  information  that  is  of  spe- 
cific value  as  a  basis  for  the  design  of  build- 
ings and  installation  of  equipment,  yet  it  is 
a  key  to  the  manufacturing  problems  as  a 
whole,  and  a  useful  and,  in  fact,  a  necessary 
step  toward  the  final  solution. 

When  decisions  have  been  reached  as  to 
the  areas  of  departments,  their  general  ar- 
rangement, and  whether  or  not  they  must  be 
located  on  the  ground  floor,  and  when  the 
necessary  trucking  and  railroad  facilities 
have  been  defined  and  a  site  tentatively 
chosen,  a  more  advanced  form  of  routing  dia- 
gram can  be  prepared  than  was  illustrated 
by  Figure  1.  If  the  building  is  of  the  single- 
story  type,  the  routing  can  be  satisfactorily 
shown  in  a  manner  indicated  by  Figure  6, 
but  if  the  buildings  are  multiple-story  this 
method  requires  the  preparation  of  wholly 


114  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

separate  diagrams  for  each  floor  and  the  ad- 
vantages of  graphical  representations  are  not 
nearly  so  pronounced. 

•Figure  3*  exemplifies  the  proper  manner 
of  recording  graphically  the  routing  of  the 
product  in  multiple-story  buildings.  Of 
course,  in  actual  practice  the  same  result  can 
be  approximated  through  showing  the  floors 
in  outline  perspective  as  in  Figure  4,  leaving 
out  the  building  detail.  Diagrams  of  this 
character  should  be  made  prior  to  locating 
individual  machines  and,  in  fact,  they  become 
the  guide  for  the  performance  of  this  work. 
The  departments  need  to  be  considered  in- 
dividually only  when  locating  machine  equip- 
ment, and  the  routing  diagrams  showing  the 
progress  of  materials  from  machine  to  ma- 
chine represent  the  last  step  to  which  the 
work  can  be  carried. 

We  will  now  consider  the  principal  factors 
which  brought  about  the  diagram  illustrated 
by  Figure  3.  In  this  case  the  plant  indicated 
by  the  perspective  comprises  entirely  new 
buildings  to  accommodate  a  business  for- 
merly conducted  in  another  factory.  The 
broad  requirements  for  which  the  plant  wns 
laid  out  were  a  daily  output  of  150  dozen 

*  Fig  3  is  a  folding  insert  facing  page"  124, 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR  115 

rough  stiff  hatSj  300  dozen  finished  stiff  hats, 
100  dozen  rough  soft  hats,  and  150  dozen  fin- 
ished soft  hats,  making  700  dozen  or  8,400 
hats  per  day.  It  should  be  explained  that 
rough  hats  are  made  by  certain  manufactur- 
ers for  customers  who  desire  to  perform  the 
finishing  operations  themselves.  These  fin- 
ishing operations  comprise,  for  stiff  hats, 
operations  29  to  42  and  for  soft  hats,  21  to  31 
inclusive  (see  Figure  3).  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  consider  all  of  the  operations  indi- 
vidually. The  preparation  of  the  chart  re- 
quired only  such  knowledge  concerning  the 
detail  methods  employed  as  was  necessary 
to  give  a  thorough  understanding  of  the 
manner  in  which  hats  are  made.  The  prob- 
lem primarily  was  to  plan  a  factory  that 
would  immediately  provide  for  the  output 
of  hats  specified  above  and  also  provide  for 
reasonable  growth  of  departments. 

The  preliminary  routing  studies  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  work  of  the  manufacturer 
comprises  three  clearly  defined  series  of  oper- 
ations; first,  those  dealing  with  the  skins 
from  which  the  fur  is  obtained  for  making 
the  hats,  including  the  removal  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  fur ;  second,  the  forming  and  shap- 
ing of  the  hat  body  up  to  a  point  where  the 


FIG.    2.      STAGES   IN    THE    MANUFACTURE   OF    STIFF    HATS. 
116 


ROUTING;    A    PRIME    FACTOR 

" rough "  hat  is  produced;  and  third,  the  fin- 
ishing operations  that  must  be  performed 
upon  the  rough  hat  body  in  order  to  bring 
about  the  final  product. 

The  first  series  of  operations  comprises 
operations  1  to  4  inclusive  for  both  soft  and 
stiff  hats.  Operations  2,  3  and  4  represent 
in  each  case  a  series  of  distinct  processes 
performed  in  part  by  labor  but  principally  by 
special  machinery.  After  the  fur  and  hair 
have  been  cut  from  the  skin,  it  is  imperative 
that  it  should  not  come  in  contact  with  water. 
Further,  the  blowing  which  is  done  for  the 
purpose  of  removing  the  hair  from  the  fur 
is  performed  in  machines  made  up  of  a  series 
of  compartments  into  which  air  is  blown  and, 
owing  to  the  speed  at  which  the  fans  operate, 
a  reasonably  substantial  foundation  is  re- 
quired. As  the  blowing  equipment  occupies 
a  very  considerable  part  of  the  total  space 
required  for  the  performance  of  the  opera- 
tions in  question,  the  nature  of  the  enclos- 
ure used  to  house  them  should  be  suited  pri- 
marily to  the  requirements  imposed  by  it. 
In  this  case  it  was  decided  to  arrange  the 


Explanation  of  lettering  on  Fig.  2 : — A,  rabbit  fur  after 
operation  No.  3  ;  B,  rabbit  fur  after  blowing,  operation  No.  4 ; 
C,  hat  body  after  operation  No.  6  ;  D,  hat  body  after  operation 
No.  14  ;  E,  hat  body  after  operation  No.  23  ;  F.  hat  body  after 
peration  No.  34  ;  G,  hat  body  after  operation  No.  28. 


118  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

blowers  in  series  of  twelve  sections,  running 
parallel  and  across  the  building. 

The  second  series  of  operations  comprises 
numbers  5  to  28  inclusive,  which  are  char- 
acterized by  the  fact  that  the  principal  pro- 
cesses in  this  group  are  effected  through  the 
alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  the  product 
from  which  the  hats  are  made.  Operation 
6  forms  the  loose  dry  fur  into  the  felt  body 
which  is  the  first  definite  form  assumed  by 
the  product  when  making  stiff  or  soft  hats 
(Figure  2).  This  is  accomplished  by  feeding 
the  fur,  which  has  been  previously  weighed, 
into  the  top  of  a  cylindrical  shell  about  4  feet 
in  diameter  and  5  feet  high,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  is  a  rotating  table  that  carries 
a  finely  perforated  copper  cone  about  24 
inches  in  height.  The  fur  entering  the  cylin- 
der in  a  finely  divided  state  is  deposited 
against  this  copper  cone  by  means  of  the  suc- 
tion created  by  an  exhaust  fan,  which  draws 
the  air  through  the  perforations  and  down 
through  an  opening  in  the  spindle  of  the 
rotating  table.  The  rotary  motion  is  only  for 
the  purpose  of  assuring  the  deposit  of  a 
uniform  layer  of  fur  upon  the  cone.  When 
the  requisite  amount  of  fur  has  been  so  de- 
posited, the  cylindrical  shell  is  opened,  wet 


ROUTING;  A  PRIME  FACTOR  119 

cloths  are  wrapped  around  the  cylinder  to 
hold  the  fur  in  place,  and  it  is  then  lowered 
into  a  tank  of  hot  water.  This  dipping  starts 
up  the  felting  action  which  is  the  basic  prin- 
ciple upon  which  the  manufacture  of  hats  of 
this  kind  depends.  Each  individual  fibre  of 
the  fur  shows,  under  microscopic  examina- 
tion, numerous  small  barbs.  The  individual 
fibres  are  worked  together  by  the  interlock- 
ing of  these  barbs  during  the  immersions  in 
hot  water  and  the  subsequent  hardening  and 
sizing  processes,  which  merely  consist  in 
working  or  kneading  the  hat  bodies  upon  a 
bench  or  in  machines. 

This  group  of  operations  contains  the  stiff- 
ening processes,  numbers  15,  16,  17  and  18, 
which  in  reality  form  a  distinct  sub-group 
by  themselves.  The  presence  of  large  quan- 
tities of  alcohol  introduces  a  considerable  fire 
hazard  and,  in  addition,  the  equipment  re- 
quired for  this  work  necessitates  special 
building  features.  Except  for  these  stiffen- 
ing operations,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  second  group  merely  subject  the 
felt  body  to  a  series  of  gradual  changes  in 
shape  in  a  manner  that  necessitates  repeated 
water  immersions.  Therefore,  the  work  is 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  large  amounts 


120  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

of  very  hot  water  are  used,  requiring  special 
provision  for  drainage  and  ventilation  and 
calling  for  complete  segregation  from  the 
first  and  third  series  of  operations,  in  con- 
nection with  which  the  complete  absence  of 
water  is  a  necessity.  Another  feature  per- 
taining to  this  part  of  the  work  is  that  all 
the  product  passing  through  the  processes 
just  referred  to  is  upon  stock  orders  rather 
than  upon  customers'  orders  and,  while  this 
condition  might  not  prevail  in  another  hat 
factory,  it  was  an  established  practice  in 
this  instance. 

Operations  29  to  44  for  the  stiff  hats  and 
21  to  33  for  the  soft  hats  are  all  performed 
through  the  medium  of  dry  heat — at  least, 
those  that  have  to  do  with  changing  the  form 
of  the  crown  or  brim.  Further,  whereas  the 
hats  are  made  for  stock  orders  during  the 
second  series  of  operations  and  can  be  stacked 
in  piles  one  over  the  other,  so  requiring  very 
little  room  for  storage  between  operations, 
during  the  third  series  they  are  made  for 
customers'  orders  and  must  be  handled  in 
much  smaller  lots;  and  as  the  crowns  have 
been  formed  they  must  be  stored  individually 
in  special  racks  provided  for  tli3  purpose. 
Consequently,  when  in  transit  they  occupy  a 


ROUTING;  A  PRIME  FACTOR  121 

large  amount  of  floor  space  as  compared  with 
that  needed  prior  to  the  formation  of  the 
rough  hat  body. 

Several  diagrams  were  prepared  before 
the  final  one  illustrated  by  Figure  3  was 
produced.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  separate 
building  is  provided  for  the  first  series  of 
operations,  including  also  the  first  operation 
of  the  second  series,  viz.,  the  forming  and 
hardening  of  the  hat  body.  Operation  6  is 
housed  in  the  same  building  as  operations 
1  to  5,  because  the  fur  should  be  carried  the 
least  distance  possible  between  blowing  and 
forming,  and  also  because  a  structure  suit- 
able for  the  installation  of  blowing  machines 
is  adapted  also  for  the  comparatively  heavy 
forming  equipment.  Further,  these  two 
types  of  equipment  require  the  major  portion 
of  the  power  needed  for  the  entire  plant ;  so, 
as  the  direct  drive  had  been  decided  upon, 
it  was  considered  advisable  to  locate  them 
in  as  close  proximity  as  possible  and  near 
the  engine  room.  There  are  no  industrial 
objections  to  the  use  of  a  multiple-story 
building  for  these  operations ;  in  fact,  a  study 
of  the  diagram  will  show  that  such  a  struc- 
ture has  certain  advantages;  consequently 
a  three-story  building  was  adopted. 


122  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

The  requirements  of  the  operations  com- 
prising the  second  group,  exclusive  of  the 
stiffening  processes,  were  such  as  to  make  a 
single-story  building  with  adequate  roof  ven- 
tilation and  floor  drainage  preferable.  The 
locations  of  the  various  departments  were 
worked  out  with  a  view  to  minimizing  the 
travel  of  the  hat  bodies  and  at  the  same  time 
making  possible  the  use  of  but  one  dry  room 
serving  both  stiff  and  soft  hats.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  dry  room  is  located  in  the 
center  of  the  building,  and  although  all  the 
soft  hats  and  stiff  hats  must  go  into  this 
department  four  times  before  they  pass  to 
the  third  and  last  series  of  operations,  this 
is  accomplished  with  a  minimum  of  handling. 
There  are  six  means  of  entrance  or  exit  to 
the  dry  room,  allowing  practically  a  contin- 
uous movement  of  material  in  well-defined 
directions  and  .obviating  the  possibility  of 
congestion. 

The  stiffening  operations  are  housed  in  a 
separate  fireproof  enclosure  designed  espe- 
cially for  this  purpose,  and  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  plant  in  order  to  confine  the 
area  subjected  to  extraordinary  fire  risk. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  before  that  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  space  is  occupied  in 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR  123 

connection  with  the  third  series  of  operations 
for  hats  in  transit,  and  on  this  account  the 
total  floor  area  is  much  greater  than  is  re- 
quired for  the  preceding  group.  Further, 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  the  work  that  is  per- 
formed upon  benches  which  requires  a  very 
good  light.  Therefore,  it  was  decided  to 
adopt  a  three-story  building,  in  order  to  com- 
bine the  necessary  floor  space  and  bench 
room  along  windows  and  at  the  same  time 
a  desirable  routing  of  the  materials.  It  will 
be  seen  that  considerably  more  space  is  re- 
quired for  finishing  the  stiff  hats  than  for 
the  soft  hats.  In  order  to  keep  the  two  kinds 
of  work  segregated,  the  first  and  second  floors 
are  utilized  for  the  former  and  the  third  floor 
for  the  latter.  These  finishing  operations, 
which  are  performed  in  the  building  to  the 
extreme  right  of  the  diagram,  constitute  a 
complete  business  in  themselves.  The  rough 
hats  are  stored  in  the  first  floor  directly  in 
the  foreground  of  the  perspective,  and  are 
shipped  from  the  finished-stores  department 
located  at  the  far  end  of  the  same  floor  and 
directly  adjoining  the  railroad  siding. 

While  it  was  not  practicable  to  include  in 
diagram  No.  3  a  very  great  amount  of  detail, 
yet  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  it  is  through 


124  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  medium  of  such  a  diagram  that  the  over- 
all dimensions  were  fixed  and  building  char- 
acteristics determined.  It  will  be  clear,  after 
it  has  been  studied  in  detail,  that  every 
square  foot  of  floor  space  is  provided  for  a 
specific  purpose,  so  that  the  expenditures 
for  the  plant  were  confined  strictly  to  those 
needed  for  the  output  immediately  desired. 
In  order  to  comply  with  this  requirement, 
the  building  provided  for  the  second  series 
of  operations  was  designed  to  the  dimen- 
sions indicated  rather  than  a  single  rectangle 
in  outline.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the 
second  and  third  floors  of  the  finished  build- 
ing have  been  set  back  so  as  to  provide  just 
the  areas  needed.  However,  the  plant  can 
be  extended  readily  to  provide  for  growth, 
without  necessitating  a  rearrangement  of  de- 
partments, except  for  the  equipment  used  in 
connection  with  operations  10,  11  and  12. 
This  would  have  to  be  moved  into  an  exten- 
sion of  the  building  in  order  to  allow  for 
the  growth  of  the  dry  room.  In  general  the 
buildings  for  the  first  and  third  series  of 
operations  would  be  extended  into  the  fore- 
ground of  the  illustration,  and  the  building 
for  the  second  series  of  operations  would  be 
extended  at  either  or  both  ends,  depending 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR  125 

upon  whether  the  increase  was  in  stiff  or  soft 
hats,  or  both.  The  only  limiting  factors  in 
the  extension  of  the  plant  as  a  whole  are 
those  imposed  by  the  location  of  the  stiffening 
building  and  the  size  of  the  property.  The 
hat  industry  is  a  particuarly  good  one  to 
refer  to  as  a  means  of  illustrating  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  graphical  routing  diagram, 
as  the  process  work  consists  in  a  large  meas- 
ure of  the  performance  of  work  upon  but  a 
single  article,  causing  its  gradual  change 
from  the  first  felt  cone  to  the  finished  hat. 
In  the  majority  of  industries  work  must  be 
performed  upon  a  great  number  of  small 
parts  which,  of  course,  makes  the  routing 
problem  a  very  much  more  complex  one. 
Under  such  circumstances  there  is  almost 
sure  to  be  a  considerable  amount  of  travel 
in  a  backward  direction,  and  the  arrangement 
of  departments  and  equipment  that  is  finally 
adopted  will  represent,  at  the  best,  but  a 
compromise  of  many  conflicting  conditions. 
In  contrast  with  this  state  of  affairs,  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  routing  lines  shown  in 
Figure  3  progress  uniformly  from  the  point 
where  the  work  commences  to  the  shipping 
department,  and  indicate  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  the  actual  paths  over  which  the 


126 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


FIG.   4.      PERSPECTIVE   ROUTING    DIAGRAM,    IN   OUTLINE,    SHOW- 
ING    PATHS     FOLLOWED     DURING     MANUFACTURE     OF 
PRINCIPAL     UNITS    ENTERING     INTO    GASOLINE 
AUTOMOBILES.        SEE    PAGE     127. 

specially  designed  trucks  used  for  transport- 
ing the  hats  are  moved. 

In  actual  practice  it  is  not  feasible  to  work 


ROUTING;   A  PRIME  FACTOR  127 

up  a  number  of  alternate  diagrams  in  as 
great  detail  as  the  one  that  has  just  been 
described,  but  a  very  satisfactory  result  can 
be  secured  by  laying  out  the  various  floors  of 
multiple-story  buildings  in  outline  perspec- 
tive, indicating  the  routing  lines  in  the  man- 
ner shown  in  Figure  4.  This  diagram,  like 
the  one  illustrating  the  progress  of  the  ma- 
terials through  the  hat  factory,  shows  the 
plant  as  a  whole  but  does  not  give  in  detail 
the  actual  routing  that  would  take  place 
within  individual  departments.  Nor  has  any 
attempt  been  made  to  route  the  individual 
parts,  numbering  several  thousand,  that  enter 
into  the  construction  of  a  complete  gasoline 
automobile.  The  diagram  is  in  reality  but  a 
i 'key,"  indicating  the  principal  paths  of 
travel  of  materials  from  the  point  where  they 
are  received  until  they  reach  the  shipping 
department  in  their  completely  assembled 
state.  The  detail  routing  for  such  a  plant 
must  be  shown  on  large-scale  drawings  of  in- 
dividual departments.  Figure  5  is  a  per- 
spective view  showing  the  exterior  of  the 
plant  as  a  whole. 

A  diagram  illustrating  the  fullest  applica- 
tion of  the  routing  principle  is  illustrated  by 
Figure  67  which  shows  the  layout  of  a  plant 


128 


ROUTING;  A  PRIME  FACTOR  129 

used  for  the  manufacture  of  wagon  and  car- 
riage axles.  In  this  instance  the  location  of 
each  piece  of  equipment  is  clearly  indicated 
on  the  blue  print  and  the  routing  lines  show 
the  exact  paths  followed  by  materials  from 
the  point  where  they  are  received  until  fin- 
ished and  ready  for  assembling  with  wheel 
boxes.  This  illustration  was  chosen  as  it 
represents  a  plant  complete  in  every  par- 
ticular. 

A  consideration  of  the  series  of  diagrams 
which  accompany  this  article  will  serve,  I 
am  sure,  to  emphasize  the  fundamental  im- 
portance of  the  routing  problem  as  bearing 
upon  the  laying  out  of  industrial  plants.  In 
order  to  develop  the  routing  scheme  properly 
one  must  make  a  thorough  study  of  all  the 
more  important  factors  entering  into  the 
business  that  is  to  be  housed,  and  on  this 
account  the  routing  diagram  forms  the  logi- 
cal basis  upon  which  to  develop  and  reconcile 
all  detail  considerations,  for  it  is  in  this  par- 
ticular that  they  all  have  a  common  ground. 
The  problem  is  in  its  essence  one  of  deter- 
mining the  inter-relationships  which  should 
exist  among  an  aggregation  of  acts  and  oper- 
ations in  order  to  accomplish  a  given  result 
with  maximum  economy.  Now,  in  order  to 


130  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

determine  whether  a  given  series  of  acts  or 
operations  is  a  desirable  one,  it  is  impera- 
tive to  consider  the  effects  produced  by  each 
upon  those  that  follow,  for  the  conditions  ex- 
isting at  every  stage  are  the  result  of  all 
prior  acts  or  operations.  Therefore,  the  pri- 


Explanation  of  lettering  on  Fig.  6: — 

1,  4-in.  bar  shear.  2,  oil  furnace.  3,  forging  press.  4, 
100-lb.  hammer.  5,  clipping  shear  (old  3-in.  bar  shear). 
6,  oil  furnace.  7,  2^-in.  Ajax  taper  rolls.  8,  2$-in.  upset- 
ting machine.  9,  oil  furnace.  10,  400-lb.  Yeakley  pneu- 
matic hammer.  11,  oil  furnace.  12,  4-in.  taper  rolls.  13, 
4-in.  upsetting  machine.  14,  punch  press.  15,  24-in.  by 
72-in.  oil  furnace.  16,  600-lb.  Yeakley  pneumatic  ham- 
mer. 17,  No.  6  Williams  White  bulldozer.  18,  oil  fur- 
nace. 19,  Queen  City  pressure  blower  and  oil  pump.  21, 
portable  hydraulic  axle-straightener  (50  ton).  22,  18-in. 
by  18-in.  oil  furnace.  23,  H-in.  triple  axle  ram.  24,  16- 
in.  by  6-ft  Porter  lathe.  25,  20-in.  by  10  ft.  Garvin 
lathe.  26,  If-in.  single  axle  ram.  27,  3-in.  single  axle 
ram.  28,  double-head  axle  lathe  (Bridgeford).  29,  42- 
in.  by  14-ft  engine  lathe  (30-in.  lathe  raised).  30,  20-in. 
by  8  ft.  engine  lathe  (for  filing  work).  31,  22-in.  by 
12-ft  engine  lathe  (for  filing  work).  32,  Whitney  mill- 
ing machine  (for  cutting  oil  grooves).  33,  l^-in.  single- 
head  Acme  bolt-cutter.  34,  2^-in.  ditto.  35,  20-in.  by  8-ft. 
Johnson  lathe.  36,  32-in.  by  14-ft.  Bishop  lathe.  37,  hy- 
draulic press  for  forcing  on  loose  collars.  38,  double- 
head  Acme  2-in.  nut  tapper.  39,  nut-facing  machine.  40, 
Monitor  turret  lathe  for  recessing  nuts.  41,  chucking 
lathe  for  loose  collars.  42,  20-in.  engine  lathe  (for  fin- 
ishing boxes).  43,  ditto.  44,  12-in.  quadruple  box 
reamer.  45,  4-spindle  drill  (for  reaming  boxes  over  li 
in.).  46,  2-wheel  grinder.  47,  36-in.  by  18-in.  case-hard- 
ening furnace.  48,  tempering  trough.  50,  14-in.  by  6-ft. 
tool-room  lathe.  51,  22-in.  Sargeant  drill  press.  52,  20- 
in.  by  20-in.  by  5-ft.  New  Haven  planer.  53,  No.  2  uni- 
versal milling  machine.  54,  12-in.  by  12-in.  tool-temper- 
ing oil  furnace.  55,  Sellers  No.  2  universal  tool  grinder. 
56,  surface  grinder. 


132  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

mary  problem  that  confronts  the  engineer 
engaged  upon  this  work  is  to  forecast  accu- 
rately results  that  will  follow  if  certain  pro- 
cedures are  carried  out,  and  this  can  be  done 
only  by  considering  in  regular  sequence 
causes  and  effects,  commencing  with  the 
initial  factor.  Consequently,  the  work  must 
of  necessity  be  handled  in  an  orderly  and 
consecutive  manner,  and  if  the  habit  of  men- 
tally grouping  facts  graphically  is  cultivated 
to  the  point  where  such  images  can  be 
promptly  summoned  into  existence,  result- 
ing conditions  are  much  more  readily  an- 
ticipated. 

One  of  the  principal  factors  entering  into 
modern  methods  of  industrial  administration 
is  that  of  scheduling  the  work  from  a  central 
planning  office  in  a  manner  that  provides  for 
the  completion  of  each  unit  of  work  in  a 
certain  time.  It  is  found  that  if  such  a  sys- 
tem is  properly  established  great  economies 
result  as  compared  with  any  results  that  are 
possible  if  no  regular  schedule  is  enforced. 
The  importance  of  the  schedule  is  best  illus- 
trated in  connection  with  the  operation  of 
large  railroad  systems.  They  depend  for 
their  very  existence  upon  the  exact  adher- 
ence to  a  train  schedule  which  defines  tho 


ROUTING;  A  PRIME  FACTOR  133 

arrival  and  departure  of  every  train  at  every 
important  point  upon  the  system.  Such  a 
schedule,  however,  can  be  carried  out  only 
after  the  tracks,  terminals,  yards,  and  sta- 
tions have  been  laid  out  strictly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  schedule 
itself.  In  other  words,  a  routing  diagram 
must  be  made  of  the  entire  system,  based 
upon  the  series  of  schedules  that  it  is  pro- 
posed to  establish.  If  a  certain  degree  of 
flexibility  can  be  provided  for,  this  of  course 
must  be  taken  advantage  of;  but  in  any  case 
there  will  be  certain  well  defined  conditions 
such,  for  example,  as  the  location  of  sidings, 
distributing  yards,  etc.,  if  it  is  a  single-track 
line.  This  is  a  well-recognized  principle  in 
railroading  and  is  fundamental  to  the  opera- 
tion of  practically  all  systems,  both  large  and 
small.  The  only  reason  that  it  has  not  been 
recognized  as  of  almost  equal  importance  in 
industrial  work,  is  because  an  industrial  plant 
can  operate  without  any  clearly  defined 
schedule,  and  therefore  without  any  carefully 
pre-arranged  layout  or  routing  plan.  It  is 
not  a  matter  of  the  physical  safety  of  those 
who  own  a  plant  or  are  employed  as  opera- 
tors, although  it  may  well  be  one  of  life  or 
death  insofar  as  the  well-being  of  the  busi- 


134  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

ness  as  a  whole  is  concerned.  Industrial 
managers  now  realize,  as  they  never  have 
before,  that  the  scheduling  of  their  work  is 
one  of  the  prime  factors  of  economic  pro- 
duction, and  that  operating  expenses  can  be 
minimized  only  when  the  plant  has  been  phys- 
ically arranged  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  most  efficient  schedule. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  AND  THEIE 
SPECIAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

IN  the  preceding  chapters  the  manner  in 
which  the  work  of  planning  and  building 
industrial  plants  should  be  carried  out  has 
been  analyzed,  formulated,  and  discussed. 
Consideration  has  been  given  primarily  to 
certain  broad  principles  governing  this  work 
irrespective  of  the  output  for  which  the  plant 
is  designed.  Knowledge  of  these  principles 
is  effective  only  when  it  is  coupled  with  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  special  re- 
quirement of  the  particular  business  we  are 
providing  for.  The  next  logical  step  in  the 
development  of  this  subject  is,  therefore,  the 
study  of  the  characteristics  of  the  particular 
type  of  plant  most  interesting  to  the  large 
majority  of  those  concerned  with  the  engi- 
neering industries.  This  is  the  plant  whose 
predominant  function  is  the  working  of 
metals. 

135 


136 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


II 

3     ?S 


«  O 


Even  here 
specific 
require- 
ments  vary 
w  i  d  e  1  y  in 
differ- 
ent  branch- 
es of  the 
metal  trade. 
Condi- 
tions are 
not  exactly 
the  same  in 
any  two 
cases.  Nev- 
e  r  t  h  e  - 
less,  metal- 
working 
plants  have 
we  1 1  -  de - 
fined  char- 
a  c  t  e  r  i  s  - 
tics  which 
can  be 
c  1  a  s  s  i  - 
fied  accord- 
ing to  the 
specific 


METAL-WORKIXG  PLANTS  137 

aims  of  the  particular  establishments  in- 
cluded in  the  general  category.  I  do  not 
propose  now  to  include  in  this  group  smelt- 
ing or  reduction  of  crude  materials  to  me- 
tallic form,  nor  the  making  of  castings;  but 
only  those  manufacturing  establishments  and 
(more  particularly)  the  machining  depart- 
ments, in  which  metals  are  converted  into  ul- 
timate commercial  products  such  as  machine 
tools,  automobiles,  generators,  watches,  etc. 

The  various  kinds  of  plants  under  consid- 
eration will  be  divided  into  three  groups,  de- 
pending upon  the  character  of  their  output 
(Figure  7,  opposite).  The  nature  of  most 
metal- working  businesses  is  such  that  they 
do  not  fall  wholly  within  the  clear  confines 
of  any  one  of  the  groups,  although  in  al- 
most every  case  there  is  a  predominating 
tendency  toward  one  of  them.  It  will  be 
shown  that  the  exactness  of  solution  that  can 
be  attained  when  laying  out  a  new  plant 
differs  in  degree  quite  markedly  for  each  of 
the  groups,  being  a  maximum  in  the  first  and 
a  minimum  in  the  third.  A  proper  under- 
standing of  this  condition  results  in  a  much 
clearer  conception  of  the  whole  subject. 

The  conduct  of  all  business  coming  under 
the  classification  in  question  involves  five 


138  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

factors,  i.  e.,  Materials,  Equipment,  Build- 
ings, Labor,  and  Administration.  Each  of 
the  departments  or  kinds  of  work  indicated  to 
the  extreme  right  of  the  chart  comprises  all 
of  these  factors,  the  names  being  merely  in- 
dicative of  the  functions  performed.  This 
self-evident  fact  is  alluded  to  only  because 
it  is  the  purpose  to  show  that  while  machine 
work,  smith  work,  the  storing  of  parts,  etc., 
are  common  to  all  of  the  plants  coming 
within  the  classification,  yet  the  manner  of 
providing  for  and  administering  each  of 
these  has  well-defined  characteristics  which 
can  be  logically  sub-divided  for  the  purpose 
of  analysis  in  accordance  with  the  three 
groups  given  in  the  chart.  These  charac- 
teristics are  briefly  referred  to  below  and  can 
be  identified  by  the  letters  and  numbers. 

I  wish  to  emphasize  that  this  analysis  is 
for  the  purpose  only  of  setting  forth  some  of 
the  more  important  requirements  of  metal- 
working  plants  in  a  manner  that  may  pos- 
sibly prove  helpful  to  the  engineer  engaged 
upon  this  work,  through  giving  him  a  more 
comprehensive  understanding  of  the  limits 
attainable  in  the  satisfaction  of  the  condi- 
tions imposed  by  the  principal  branches  of 
the  metal-working  industry. 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  139 

M— (1)    MANUFACTURING  WORK 

(Characteristics) 

M  (1)  a — MATERIALS— Usually  of  such  a  charac- 
ter and  required  in  such  quantities  that  they  can  be 
readily  handled  and  stored  through  the  provision  of 
special  tote  boxes,  racks,  bins,  etc. 

M  (1)  b — EQUIPMENT — Principally  special  in 
character;  sometimes  available  as  stock  machinery, 
otherwise  built  to  order  in  accordance  with  special 
designs. 

M  (1)  c — BUILDINGS — Single-story  or  more  often 
multiple-story — of  types  standard  for  such  structures 
considered  on  their  own  account,  the  product  not  be- 
ing an  influencing  factor. 

M  (1)  d — LABOR' — Comparatively  low-grade  help 
skilled  in  the  performance  of  single  operations,  ex- 
cepting a  small  part  of  the  force  composed  of  high- 
class  mechanics. 

M  (1)  e — ADMINISTRATION — Clearly  defined  con- 
ditions as  to  materials,  equipment,  and  functions  of 
employees  permits  of  the  most  ready  establishment 
of  a  fixed  policy  as  to  operating  methods  and  pro- 
visions for  expansion. 

M  (1)  a,  b,  c,  d,  e — The  problem  of  plant  layout 
for  industries  in  this  group  permits  more  readily  of 
exact  solution  than  for  either  of  the  groups  that  fol- 
low. Equipment  is  largely  special.  Buildings  are  of 
standard  types  suited  to  property  conditions.  Ad- 
ministration methods  are  capable  of  accurate  defini- 
tion, and  standards  can  be  adhered  to  owing  to  the 
repetitive  feature  of  the  manufacture.  The  final 
layout  of  equipment  and  buildings  indicates  directly 


140  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

(to  a  very  considerable  extent)  the  desired  method 
of  operation. 

M—  (2)  HEAVY  MACHINE  WOEK 

( Characteristics) 

M  (2)  a  —  MATERIALS  —  Usually  comparatively 
heavy,  quite  diversified  and  bulky,  so  making  the  so- 
lution of  handling  and  storing  methods  more  difficult 
than  for  shops  in  the  first  class,  although  reasonably 
fixed  conditions  are  presented. 

M  (2)  b — EQUIPMENT' — Generally  stock  machine 
tools,  adapted  to  a  considerable  range  of  work  as 
compared  with  the  wholly  special  equipment  char- 
acteristic of  the  first  class. 

M  (2)  c — BUILDINGS — Special  to  suit  the  size  of 
the  work  performed  in  them,  and  incorporating 
structural  features  that  are  used  in  the  same  sense 
as  equipment. 

M  (2)  d — LABOR — A  predominating  part  prop- 
erly experienced  in  respective  trades,  not  merely 
skilled  in  the  attendance  of  machines  performing 
single  operations. 

M  (2)  e — ADMINISTRATION — Conditions  as  to 
materials  and  equipment  and  functions  of  employees 
are  not  capable  of  standardization  in  the  sense  that 
is  practicable  in  shops  of  the  first  class,  so  that  in- 
telligent direction  of  the  work  requires  the  constant 
application  of  scientific  methods  based  upon  ele- 
mental understanding  of  all  factors  involved  and  ap- 
plied through  carefully  devised  system. 

M  (2)  a,  b,  c,  d,  e — The  problem  of  plant  layout 
for  industries  in  this  group  is  the  most  complex; 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  141 

for,  while  capable  of  reasonably  definite  solution,  the 
greatest  variety  of  factors  is  presented.  Equipment 
is  largely  comprised  of  standard  types  of  machines. 
Buildings  are  special.  Administration  is  complex. 
The  final  layout  of  equipment  and  buildings  suggests 
directly  only  in  small  measure  the  method  of  opera- 
tion intended. 

M— (3)    GENERAL  MACHINE  WORK 

(Characteristics) 

M  (3)  a — MATERIALS — The  character  and 
amount  of  materials  can  be  anticipated  only  in  small 
part,  owing  to  uncertainty  of  kind  of  work  that  will 
be  done.  Consequently,  there  is  imposed  a  wide  de- 
mand upon  the  receiving  and  stores  departments. 

M  (3)  b — EQUIPMENT — Principally  stock  ma- 
chines suited  to  very  wide  range  .of  work.  Occa- 
sionally special  machinery  for  possible  repairs  on 
special  parts.  Selection  of  types  and  determination 
of  amount  of  equipment  can  be  approximated  only. 

M  (3)  c — BUILDINGS — The  character  of  work  to 
be  done  is  usually  a  governing  factor  in  their  design. 
Precise  definition  of  types  and  sizes  is,  however,  sel- 
dom practicable. 

M  (3)  d — LABOR — Especially  versatile  in  re- 
spective trades.  Possibly  not  so  capable  at  any  one 
job  as  operators  in  shops  of  second  class,  but  com- 
petent throughout  a  much  wider  range  of  per- 
formance. 

M  (3)  e — ADMINISTRATION — The  system  of  man- 
agement must  be  the  one  that  will  prove  most  ef- 
fective under  circumstances  that  make  it  impossible 
to  anticipate  exact  conditions  from  day  to  day.  Each 


142  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

case  must  be  worked  out  along  special  lines  and 
often  conditions  are  such  as  not  to  justify  a  highly 
perfected  system. 

M  (3)  a,  b,  c,  d,  e — The  problem  of  laying  out 
plants  coming  within  this  group  is  capable  of  the 
least  definite  solution.  Equipment  is  largely  stand- 
ard, suited  to  wide  range  of  work.  Buildings  stand- 
ard or  special,  depending  on  the  kind  of  work  that 
is  desired.  Administration  methods  must  be  suited 
to  the  uncertain  conditions  and,  while  in  one  sense 
the  conditions  call  for  the  most  highly  perfected 
system,  incidental  conditions  prohibit  or  do  not 
justify  their  introduction.  In  any  case,  it  is  system 
that  works  from  day  to  day  and  cannot  plan  for  the 
future. 

The  purpose  of  classifying  our  subject  in 
the  manner  given  above  was,  primarily,  to 
provide  a  logical  basis  for  its  discussion.  We 
will  now  consider,  individually,  each  of  the 
factors  composing  the  three  principal  groups. 

M  (1)  a — MATERIALS — Usually  of  such  a  charac- 
ter and  required  in  such  quantities  that  they  can  be 
readily  handled  and  stored  through  the  provision  of 
special  tote  boxes,  racks,  bins,  etc. 

The  term  " Manufacturing  Work"  is  used 
in  the  customary  industrial  sense — namely, 
the  kind  of  work  that  involves  the  making 
of  certain  articles  in  very  large  quantities, 
the  repetition  of  various  operations  being  the 
essence  of  the  manufacturing  feature.  The 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  143 

necessity  of  manufacturing  in  such  large  lots 
as  we  have  under  consideration  arises  prin- 
cipally in  connection  with  articles  that  are 
purchased  for  individual  use,  such  as 
watches,  cooking  utensils,  typewriters,  sew- 
ing machines,  etc.  Of  course,  there  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule,  such  as  the  automobile, 
but  even  in  its  case  the  actual  manufacturing 
operations  are  performed  upon  compara- 
tively small  parts. 

Consequently,  materials  purchased  by 
manufacturing  concerns  are  characterized  by 
their  comparative  lightness  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  required  in  great  quantities.  There- 
fore, the  stores  department  can  be  laid  out 
with  very  considerable  accuracy,  providing 
special  bins  and  racks  for  the  storage  of 
different  material  and  they  can  be  efficiently 
transported  in  lots  through  the  use  of  tote 
boxes  or  other  equipment  adapted  particu- 
larly to  them. 

M  (1)  b — EQUIPMENT — Principally  special  in 
character,  sometimes  available  as  stock  machinery, 
otherwise  built  to  order  in  accordance  with  special 
designs. 

The  types  of  special  equipment  used  in 
manufacturing  plants  are  designed  ordin- 
arily for  the  performance  of  but  a  single  job, 


144  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

or  in  many  cases,  but  for  a  single  operation. 
Frequently,  however,  adjustments  are  pro- 
vided which  permit  of  the  performance  of 
other  jobs  or  operations  which  are  of  the 
same  general  kind,  but  usually  special  equip- 
ment is  used  exclusively  for  the  perform- 
ance of  certain  fixed  operations.  There  is 
special  machinery  for  which  there  is  so  large 
a  demand  that  it  is  a  regular  line  of  output 
of  certain  of  the  machine-tool  builders ;  and 
then  again,  the  machinery  used  to  manufac- 
ture special  articles  which,  either  through 
patent  protections  or  for  other  causes  are 
made  only  by  one  or  at  the  most  a  few  con- 
cerns, must  be  built  to  order  in  accordance 
with  special  designs.  The  ability  exercised 
in  the  design  of  such  equipment  has,  neces- 
sarily, a  very  great  bearing  upon  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  plant,  as  the  amount  of  output 
is  directly  dependent  upon  the  performance 
of  the  machines  themselves. 

It  is  particularly  in  regard  to  equipment 
designed  for  the  manufacture  of  articles  for 
which  there  is  a  large  demand  that  standard 
types  have  been  perfected,  the  use  of  which 
can  be  counted  upon  when  laying  out  a  new 
plant.  It  is  not  practicable  as  a  general  thing 
for  the  engineer  who  is  engaged  upon  such 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  145 

work  to  take  under  consideration  the  design 
of  process  apparatus  or  special  machinery. 
Therefore,  he  is  confronted  with  a  very  spe- 
cific problem  in  so  far  as  equipment  is  con- 
cerned. 

M  (1)  c — BUILDINGS — Single-story  or  more  often 
multiple-story — of  types  standard  for  such  struc- 
tures considered  on  their  own  account,  the  product 
not  being  an  influencing  factor. 

Several  functions  are  performed  by  the 
buildings  used  to  house  industrial  work,  the 
more  important  of  which  are ;  first,  to  afford 
protection  against  unfavorable  weather ;  sec- 
ond, to  allow  of  a  floor  area  greater  in  the 
aggregate  than  the  area  of  the  property  oc- 
cupied (accomplished  through  the  adoption 
of  multiple-story  structures) ;  third,  to  afford 
fire  protection;  and  fourth,  to  serve  in  part 
as  equipment  through  providing  the  means 
of  support  for  line-shafting,  traveling-crane 
runways,  etc.  The  first  three  considerations 
usually  govern  for  the  class  of  work  that  we 
are  considering.  As  manufacturing  work  is 
light  in  character,  the  amount  of  head  room 
between  floor  and  ceiling  that  is  required  for 
proper  light  and  ventilation  (which  is  satis- 
factory for  light  overhead  line  shafts),  is 
found  to  be  adequate.  Therefore,  the  build- 


146  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

ing  structures  are  not  governed  specifically 
by  the  detail  processes  of  manufacture,  but 
are  types  suitable  for  various  other  classes 
of  occupancy.  It  is  often  desirable,  from 
the  standpoint  of  investment,  to  assure  the 
fulfilment  of  this  condition  even  if  slight  in- 
dustrial disadvantages  result. 

The  sketches  on  page  ***  and  ***  show 
buildings  of  multiple-story  type  suited  to  gen- 
eral manufacturing  operations.  The  illus- 
trations on  following  pages  exemplify  build- 
ings belonging  to  the  second  and  third  groups 
in  the  classification  here  adopted — that  is,  to 
definite,  comparatively  heavy  machine  work 
or  to  general  machine  work. 

M  (1)  d — LABOR — Comparatively  low-grade  help 
skilled  in  the  performance  of  single  operations,  ex- 
cepting a  small  part  of  the  force  composed  of  high- 
class  mechanics. 

When  the  character  of  the  work  is  such  as 
to  lend  itself  to  manufacture  by  means  of 
special  and  automatic  machinery,  highly 
skilled  operators  are  usually  needed  only  for 
the  performance  of  certain  auxiliary  func- 
tions— that  is,  the  special  machinery  may  re- 
quire attendants  whose  entire  duty  it  is  to 
furnish  the  work  to  the  machine  and  to  re- 
move the  finished  product.  While  this  may 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  147 

necessitate  a  considerable  amount  of  dex- 
terity upon  the  part  of  such  operators,  the 
work  is  of  such  a  nature  that  comparatively 
low-grade  help  can  be  trained  to  a  high  point 
of  efficiency.  The  great  advantage  these 
manufacturing  methods  afford  is  that  quality 
and  quantity  of  work  done  are  almost  wholly 
beyond  the  control  of  the  machine  attend- 
ants. As  a  rule  the  class  of  operators  just 
referred  to  are  more  readily  disciplined  than 
skilled  artisans.  The  question  of  their  segre- 
gation arises  only  when  it  is  necessary  to 
meet  objections  that  may  be  advanced  by 
skilled  workers. 

The  maintenance  of  conditions  that  permit 
the  employment  of  low-grade  men  is  made 
possible,  however,  only  through  the  fact  that 
a  small  force  of  very  high-class  mechanics  is 
engaged  to  make  all  of  the  dies,  jigs,  templets 
and  other  special  accessories,  and  conditions 
favorable  to  their  most  efficient  perform- 
ance must  be  established.  It  is  often  de- 
sirable to  segregate  these  men,  and  when 
their  work  has  to  do  with  the  product  in  only 
an  indirect  manner,  their  services  are  made 
available  to  a  number  of  departments  turn- 
ing out  products  which  in  themselves  are 
quite  different. 


148  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

M(l)  e — ADMINISTRATION — Clearly  defined  con- 
ditions as  to  materials,  equipment  and  functions  of 
employees  permit  of  the  most  ready  establishment 
of  a  fixed  policy  as  to  operating  methods  and  pro- 
visions for  expansion. 

The  purpose  of  a  system  of  administration 
is  to  provide  the  executive  with  means  for 
securing  the  results  for  which  the  plant  is 
operated;  viz.,  the  manufacture  of  a  certain 
output  complying  with  fixed  standards  as  to 
quality  and  made  in  certain  definite  quan- 
tities. 

The  administration  of  manufacturing 
plants  is  facilitated  through  the  fact  that 
the  quality  of  the  product  is  governed  largely 
by  the  performance  of  machines,  not  opera- 
tors, and  that  a  fixed  output  can  be  secured 
for  a  given  equipment.  Fixed  output  under 
uniform  conditions  of  attendance  should  re- 
sult in  uniform  operating  costs;  the  costs 
being  low  because  the  volume  of  work  jus- 
tifies special  equipment,  and  uniform  on  ac- 
count of  the  regularity  of  the  output. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  main  stand- 
ard types  of  buildings  are  suited  to  manu- 
facturing work,  it  is  usually  a  compara- 
tively simple  matter  to  provide  for  exten- 
sions through  the  construction  of  additional 
units  of  the  same  character,  although  when 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  149 

new  buildings  are  occupied  there  is  usually 
required  a  reapportionment  of  space  in  the 
original  plant. 

Owing  to  the  special  character  of  the  equip- 
ment, there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  work  which 
must  be  performed  upon  it,  and  even  though 
there  are  a  great  number  of  parts  entering 
into  the  product,  the  question  of  routing  is  a 
comparatively  simple  one,  and  the  routing 
plan  that  is  adopted  is  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent made  apparent  by  the  layout  itself.  This 
is  illustrated  in  a  very  simple  form  by  a  hat 
factory,  where,  if  the  trucks  transporting 
the  hats  are  removed  in  the  manner  made 
directly  evident  by  the  arrangement  of  the 
machinery  in  departments,  they  will  practi- 
cally mark  out  on  the  floor  of  the  various 
buildings  lines  identical  with  those  shown  on 
the  routing  diagram  (shown  in  a  preceding 
chapter)  and  this  would  be  true  if  those  who 
operated  the  plant  had  never  seen  the  dia- 
gram in  question. 

M   (1)   A,  B,  C,  D,  E — BESUME 

Owing  to  the  precision  with  which  most 
of  the  fundamental  requirements  of  manu- 
facturing plants  can  be  denned,  it  is  clear 
that  they  can  be  laid  out  with  a  very  great 


150  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

degree  of  accuracy.  The  performance  of 
special  equipment  is  absolutely  definite  in 
character.  The  amount  of  such  equipment 
required  can  be  calculated  with  precision,  and 
the  amount  of  enclosed  floor  space  needed 
can  be  readily  ascertained  after  layouts  of 
equipment  have  been  made.  Except  for  the 
buildings  themselves,  the  entire  plant  is 
special  in  character  and,  in  fact,  this  is  true 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  the  layout  as  a 
whole  useful  in  connection  with  the  manu- 
facture of  but  a  single  line  of  output.  The 
number  of  plants  that  can  be  classed  prop- 
erly in  the  group  we  are  considering  is 
rapidly  increasing  owing  to  the  tendency  to- 
ward specialization  which  has  become  so 
marked  a  factor  within  recent  years. 

There  are  so  many  kinds  of  special  equip- 
ment, that  it  will  not  be  practicable  to  include 
actual  illustrations,*  particularly  as  many  of 
them  are  familiar  to  the  reader.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  character  of  the  work  upon  the 
types  of  buildings  is,  however,  so  very 
marked  and  interesting  that  a  number  of 
illustrations  are  given  showing  cross-sections 


*  Machine-shop  equipment  was  discussed  by  Mr.  Day 
in  considerable  detail  in  two  articles  that  appeared  in 
THE  ENGINEEEING  MAGAZINE  for  July  and  August,  1909. 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS 


151 


THE  WARNEK  BROS-CO.1**— 
BRIDGEPORT  CONN.,  METAL  DEPT. 


The  En\jitttfriiiy  Ulagaztne 


FIG.    8.       TYPICAL    BUILDINGS    SUITED    TO    THE    REQUIREMENTS 

OF     THE     FIRST,     OR      "GENERAL     MANUFACTURING," 

GROUP    IN  THE  CLASSIFICATION   ON   PAGE   136. 

of  certain  existing  shops  that  have  been  de- 
signed for  particular  lines  of  metal  work. 
The  small  metal  parts  for  the  corsets  manu- 
factured by  The  Warner  Brothers  Company 
of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  in  the  buildings  shown 
in  cross-section  on  page  ***,  are  turned  out 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  secure  the  full 
benefit  of  manufacturing  methods.  This  con- 
dition is  also  well  exemplified  in  the  building 
(shown  in  cross-section  on  page  ***)  in  which 
have  been  housed  certain  of  the  principal 
departments  of  S.  L.  Allen  &  Company  of 
Philadelphia,  manufacturers  of  light  agricul- 
tural implements.  It  is  clear  that  the  struc- 
tures in  question,  which  are  of  the  multiple- 
story  type,  were  designed  primarily  to  pro- 


152 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


vide  the  necessary  floor  areas  in  connection 
with  the  available  property,  but  that  it  was 
possible  to  work  up  the  structural  details  to 
satisfy  building  requirements  upon  their  own 
account  as  the  character  of  the  work  was  not 
a  governing  factor.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
these  buildings  could  be  used  advantageously 


S.L.ALLEN  &CO..PH1LADELFHIA  PA-MANUFACTURING  BUILDING 

Iht  Engineering  Mayaztne 


FIG.    9.       TYPICAL    BUILDINGS    SUITED    TO    THE    EEQUIREMENTS 

OF     THE     FIRST,      OR     "GENERAL      MANUFACTURING," 

GROUP  IN    THE  CLASSIFICATION    ON  PAGE    136. 

for  other  purposes  than  those  directly 
intended,  providing  the  floor  areas  were 
sufficient. 

Having  covered  the  principal  requirements 
imposed  by  metal-working  businesses  that 
can  be  conducted  upon  a  manufacturing  basis, 
we  will  proceed  to  consider  in  the  same  man- 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  153 

ner  the  second  class  of  shops,  viz. :  those  that 
build  given  lines  of  reasonably  heavy  ma- 
chinery. 

M  (2)  a  —  MATERIALS  —  Usually  comparatively 
heavy,  quite  diversified  and  bulky,  so  making  the  so- 
lution of  handling  and  storing  methods  more  dif- 
ficult than  for  shops  in  the  first  class,  although  rea- 
sonably fixed  conditions  are  presented. 

The  stores  departments  of  certain  concerns 
whose  output  would  rightly  fall  in  this  class 
can  be  laid  out  with  very  great  precision,  be- 
cause of  the  accuracy  of  their  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  quantities  of  materials  that 
should  be  available.  There  are  other  cases 
where  no  attempt  is  made  to  carry  a  con- 
siderable supply  of  finished  product.  The 
raw  materials  with  which  we  are  now  more 
particularly  concerned  tend  toward  large  and 
bulky  parts,  requiring  for  their  handling  and 
transportation  special  provision  in  the  form 
of  equipment,  and  often  building  features. 
It  was  pointed  out  that  for  plants  coming 
within  the  first  group  the  materials  entering 
into  the  manufacture  usually  do  not  influence 
in  any  way  the  buildings  proper.  In  this 
case,  however,  we  find  that  the  nature  of  the 
materials  may  necessitate  floors  designed  for 
extraordinary  loads,  larger  door  and  elevator 


154  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

openings  than  would  ordinarily  be  required, 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  materials,  etc. 

M  (2)  b — EQUIPMENT — Generally  stock  machine 
tools,  adapted  to  a  considerable  range  of  work  as 
compared  with  the  wholly  special  equipment  char- 
acteristic of  the  first  class. 

The  class  of  work  now  in  question  is  not 
sufficiently  repetitive  to  justify  the  expense 
of  special  equipment,  so  the  machine  tools 
that  are  usually  needed  are  the  familiar 
types  of  engine  lathes,  boring  mills,  planers, 
drill  presses,  etc.  They  are  designed  par- 
ticularly with  a  view  to  handling  a  diversi- 
fied line  of  work,  although  the  tendency 
within  recent  years  has  been  more  and  more 
to  narrow  down  their  range.  Each  type  is 
suited  to  the  performance  of  certain  opera- 
tions, which  may  be  required  in  connection 
with  the  machining  of  a  great  multiplicity 
of  different  parts  entering  into  products 
used  for  widely  diversified  purposes.  There- 
fore, this  group  of  metal-working  plants 
affords  the  engineer  considerable  oppor- 
tunity for  the  performance  of  valuable  serv- 
ice in  connection  with  the  selection  of  ma- 
chine tools.  This  is  the  case  because  the 
problem  is  one  of  selecting  the  standard  ma- 
chines best  suited  to  the  performance  of  the 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  155 

various  kinds  of  work,  considered  individ- 
ually and  collectively,  rather  than  the  task 
of  designing  special  machines  or  auxiliary 
equipment  for  special  operations  which  is 
presented  by  shops  of  the  first  class.  The 
engineer  who  has  had  the  necessary  expe- 
rience can  perform  the  first  function  quite 
promptly,  whereas  the  designing  of  special 
apparatus,  even  when  the  work  is  performed 
by  experts,  almost  always  requires  an 
amount  of  time  that  is  not  available  when 
planning  a  new  shop. 

M  (2)  c — BUILDINGS — Special  to  suit  the  size  of 
the  work  performed  in  them  and  incorporating 
structural  features  that  are  used  in  the  same  sense 
as  equipment. 

The  buildings  for  plants  coming  within  the 
class  in  question  must,  as  a  rule,  be  designed 
with  a  view  to  meeting  the  special  require- 
ments imposed  by  the  product.  Overhead 
traveling  cranes  are  often  necessary,  and 
insofar  as  the  building  structures  are  used 
to  support  the  crane  runways,  etc.,  they  con- 
tribute directly  to  the  equipment  of  the  plant. 
High  head  room  is  usually  required  under 
traveling  cranes  in  order  to  allow  of  the 
erection  of  large  machinery,  and  the  heavy 
floor  loads  imposed,  even  in  the  machine  de- 


156  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

partments,    often    necessitate    special    pro- 
vision. 

M  (3)  d — LABOR — A  predominating  part  prop- 
erly experienced  in  respective  trades,  not  merely 
skilled  in  the  attendance  of  machines  performing 
single  operations. 

As  stock  machine  tools  adapted  to  a  con- 
siderable range  of  work  are  used  in  plants 
doing  the  kind  of  work  that  we  have  under 
consideration,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  com- 
paratively highly  skilled  operators.  The 
fewer  the  parts  that  are  handled,  and  in  gen- 
eral the  greater  their  bulk  and  weight,  the 
higher  must  be  the  grade  of  the  operators- 
assuming,  of  course,  that  a  considerable 
amount  of  machine  or  other  kind  of  work 
must  be  done  upon  the  parts.  Therefore,  in 
shops  where  large  steam  engines  are  made  we 
find  that  the  average  competency  of  the  vari- 
ous workers  ranks  much  higher  than  is  the 
case  in  a  plant  making  typewriters,  although 
the  intricacy  of  the  latter  product  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  former.  While  this 
question  of  the  character  of  the  labor  may 
not  materially  affect  the  physical  features  of 
the  plant,  yet  it  is  one  that  must  be  thor- 
oughly appreciated  in  planning  a  new  prop- 
erty or  an  extension  to  an  existing  property. 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  157 

M  (2)  e — ADMINISTRATION — Conditions  as  to 
materials  and  equipment  and  functions  of  employees 
are  not  capable  of  standardization  in  the  sense  that 
is  practicable  in  shops  of  the  first  class,  so  that  in- 
telligent direction  of  the  work  requires  the  constant 
application  of  scientific  methods  based  upon  ele- 
mental understanding  of  all  factors  involved  and  ap- 
plied through  carefully  devised  system. 

When  complex  conditions  are  encountered 
in  connection  with  the  planning  of  an  indus- 
trial plant,  it  is  certain  that  equally  complex 
problems  will  arise  in  connection  with  the 
administration  of  the  work  to  be  performed 
when  the  plant  is  finished. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  equipment  is  suited  to  the  performance 
of  a  considerable  range  of  work,  and  also 
because  the  number  of  parts  of  a  given  kind 
may  be  comparatively  limited,  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  perform  certain  opera- 
tions on  quite  a  number  of  different  pieces 
upon  the  same  machines.  For  example,  there 
may  be  forty  or  fifty  parts  entering  into  a 
complete  engine  lathe  that  require  turning 
operations.  Possibly  at  least  50  per  cent,  of 
these  parts  should  be  turned  upon  engine 
lathes  of  the  same  size  and  type,  yet  a  very 
small  number  of  these  lathes  would  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  entire  diversified  output.  Here 


158  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

we  find  a  state  of  affairs  quite  different  from 
that  presented  by  the  first  class  of  shops, 
where  a  majority  of  the  machines  are  oper- 
ated continually  upon  identically  the  same 
work. 

As  machines  are  not  automatic,  there  are 
usually  a  number  of  different  methods  by 
which  given  operations  can  be  performed, 
but  only  one  of  these  represents  maximum 
economy.  Different  kinds  of  work  present 
variations  in  materials,  diameters,  and 
amount  of  material  to  be  removed,  so  that 
speeds  and  feeds  must  be  adjusted  to  the 
particular  requirements;  and  as  continuous 
operation  is  seldom  possible,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  these  adjustments  very  frequently. 
In  fact,  changes  in  speeds  and  feeds  and 
changes  of  cutting  tools  are  often  necessary 
for  the  performance  of  a  single  job.  Conse- 
quently, the  efficiency  with  which  machines 
operate  depends  upon  the  degree  to  which 
conditions  representing  maximum  economy 
are  maintained. 

The  various  operations  upon  different 
parts  of  the  product  do  not  necessarily  have 
to  be  performed  in  a  given  sequence,  al- 
though one  sequence  represents  maximum 
economy.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  ar- 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  159 

rangement  of  the  equipment  to  accord  with 
the  most  desirable  plan  of  routing,  it  is  clear 
that  it  becomes  imperative  to  establish  the 
sequence  in  which  the  more  important  opera- 
tions should  be  performed.  Usually  there 
are  conditions,  arising  either  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  equipment  that  is  available  or 
the  work  to  be  done,  making  one  schedule  of 
operations  more  desirable  than  all  others. 

In  view  of  the  foregoing,  it  follows  that 
the  amount  and  arrangement  of  equipment 
must  be  based  upon  the  assumption  that  a 
certain  definite  system  of  operation  is  to  be 
enforced.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  engineer 
to  decide  merely  that  the  operations  shall 
be  performed  in  a  certain  sequence  and  the 
machines  always  adjusted  for  conditions 
representing  maximum  output,  for  he  may 
be  basing  his  layout  upon  a  system  of  shop 
management  that  the  personnel  will  be 
wholly  incapable  of  enforcing.  The  question 
of  shop  management  is  so  extremely  subtle 
and  comprehensive  that  it  is  not  usually 
practicable  for  the  engineer  to  attempt  to 
bring  about  radical  changes  in  the  methods 
employed  by  those  for  whom  he  is  designing 
a  new  plant,  unless  the  requisite  time  is  avail- 
able and  the  engineer's  principals  have  a 


160  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

thorough  realization  of  just  what  the  work 
is  likely  to  involve. 

There  are,  of  course,  certain  details  that 
are  affected  directly  by  the  system  of  shop 
management  that  is  adopted — for  example, 
the  character  and  location  of  shop  offices, 
entrances  and  exits  for  employees,  etc.  In 
addition  to  providing  for  such  matters,  the 
engineer  should  aim  to  lay  out  the  plant  so 
that  it  will  lend  itself  efficiently  to  the  sys- 
tem of  administration  he  approves,  even 
though  the  older  methods  must  be  continued 
for  some  time. 

The  problem  of  laying  out  plants  coming 
within  this  group  is  much  more  subtle  than 
in  plants  of  the  manufacturing  type.  The 
provision  of  buildings  and  equipment,  worked 
out  in  accordance  with  certain  fixed  assump- 
tions, does  not  assure,  during  subsequent 
operation,  the  fulfilment  of  these  assump- 
tions because  the  physical  layout  does  not  in- 
dicate necessarily  the  desired  plan  of  routing. 
It  will  lend  itself  to  many  less  efficient  but 
workable  alternative  plans,  and  the  same  is 
even  more  true  of  the  performance  of  indi- 
vidual machines.  It  is  particularly  import- 
ant that  this  condition  should  be  recognized 
by  those  who  will  operate  the  property.  It  is 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  161 

an  inherent  fact  that  while  such  a  layout  as 
we  are  considering  should  prove,  in  the 
hands  of  experienced  men  familiar  with  its 
purpose,  to  be  fully  as  efficient  as  anticipated, 
in  the  hands  of  others  it  will  probably  fall 
far  short  of  the  requirements. 

M   (2)   A,  B,  C,  D,  E RESUME. 

Owing  to  the  great  number  of  variable 
factors  entering  into  the  problem  of  laying 
out  plants  for  heavy  machine  work  of  a 
given  line,  requiring,  among  other  things,  the 
establishment  of  certain  assumptions  con- 
cerning the  manner  in  which  the  work  will 
be  handled  after  the  plant  is  built,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  selection  of  equipment  both 
as  to  character  and  amount  cannot  be  accom- 
plished with  anything  like  the  certainty  that 
is  possible  for  the  manufacturing  plant.  Fur- 
ther, the  character  of  the  building  is  di- 
rectly dependent  upon  conclusions  reached 
concerning  the  equipment,  and  as  these  very 
conclusions  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  only  an 
approximation,  it  will  be  seen  that  unless  the 
best  of  judgment  is  exercised  the  most  fav- 
orable solution  in  regard  to  the  buildings 
proper  will  not  be  obtained. 

The  routing  problem  in  shops  of  the  sec- 
ond class  is  much  more  difficult  of  solution 


162  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

than  in  the  first  instance,  and  it  is  much 
more  difficult  to  comply  with  the  adopted 
plan  than  for  manufacturing  plants.  In  the 
first  place,  when  laying  out  the  shop,  one 
cannot  expect  to  secure  uniform  progress 
of  materials  through  the  plant  and  the  result 
must  necessarily  be  a  compromise  with  a 
view  to  securing  the  best  average  routing  of 
all  the  parts.  In  certain  cases,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  consider  carefully  the  advis- 
ability of  installing  additional  equipment, 
rather  than  transporting  the  parts  a  consid- 
erable distance  to  points  where  equipment  of 
the  desired  character  is  available.  In  such 
instances  the  handling  cost  must  be  weighed 
against  the  interest  and  depreciation  charges 
incurred  through  installing  additional  ma- 
chinery for  convenience  only. 

A  rearrangement  of  departments  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  deficient  areas  or 
changing  the  plan  of  routing  can  be  effected 
quite  readily,  as  a  rule,  in  a  manufacturing 
plant  where  the  buildings  are  of  uniform 
cross  section  and  the  equipment  can  be 
readily  moved.  Eearrangements  of  this 
kind,  however,  cannot  be  made  with  any- 
thing like  the  same  facility  or  efficiency  in 
the  plant  composed  of  various  buildings  de- 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  163 

signed  for  specific  kinds  of  work.  Therefore, 
we  are  confronted  with  the  anomalous  con- 
dition that  for  plants  in  which  the  require- 
ments can  be  definitely  anticipated,  subse- 
quent changes  in  departmental  locations  and 
areas  are  not  likely  to  be  necessary,  although 
they  can  readily  be  made ;  whereas  for  plants 
in  which  the  requirements  cannot  be  so  defin- 
itely ascertained,  and  the  need  of  subsequent 
changes  is  thus  more  probable,  the  buildings 
must  be  specifically  designed  to  comply  with 
radically  different  kinds  of  work,  which,  of 
course,  makes  a  rearrangement  very  difficult 
to  accomplish. 

The  buildings  illustrated  on  pages  166, 167, 
168,  and  (in  part)  164  are  occupied  by  kinds 
of  work  that  come  within  the  second  division 
of  the  classification,  and  it  will  be  clear  at 
once  that  the  designs  of  the  structures  have 
been  directly  influenced  by  the  character  of 
work  performed  within  them.  Not  only  are 
the  types  of  the  various  buildings  quite  dif- 
ferent, but  they  also  represent  a  wide  range 
in  cross-section  dimensions.  The  total  floor 
space  provided  in  the  shop  of  the  Emerson 
Steam  Pump  Company,  Alexandria,  Va.,*  is 
about  equally  divided  between  the  area 


*  These  buildings  are  shown  on  page   164. 


164 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  165 

served  by  an  electrically  operated  crane  re^ 
quiring  a  relatively  high  headroom,  and  an 
area  or  areas  over  which  light  cranes  can  be 
run  but  where  the  headroom  is  such  as  to 
lend  itself  properly  to  the  installation  of 
overhead  line  shafting.  The  requirements 
imposed  by  the  work  performed  in  the  ma- 
chine and  transformer  departments  of  the 
Wagner  Electric  &  Mfg.  Company,  St. 
Louis,  (p.  164),  were  such  that  the  areas 
under  the  high  bays  needed  to  be  only  one- 
third  of  the  total  floor  space,  so  that  the  con- 
ditions were  fulfilled  by  designing  gallery 
shops  as  illustrated  by  the  cross-sections.  In 
both  these  shops  the  gallery  construction 
possesses  industrial  advantages  in  addition 
to  requiring  only  two-thirds  the  amount  of 
real  estate  that  would  be  occupied  if  the 
shops  were  single  story  throughout. 

Frequently,  the  area  in  connection  with 
which  relatively  high  headroom  is  required 
is  only  a  small  part  of  the  total  necessary 
enclosed  space.  The  main  buildings  of  the 
new  plant  now  being  constructed  for  the  Cin- 
cinnati-Bickford  Tool  Company,  Oakley, 
Ohio,  are  shown  in  cross-section  on  page  166. 
It  will  be  seen  that  a  high  bay  is  provided  for 
the  warehouse  department,  and  one  running 


166 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


perpendicular  will 
house  the  large 
equipment.  The 
machining  depart- 
ments  will  be 
housed  in  a  large 
area  covered  by  a 
saw-tooth  roof  con- 
struction, two  dis- 
tinct clear  heights 
being  provided  to 
accommodate  d  i  f  - 
f erent  kinds  of 
work.  A  cross-sec- 
tion, opposite,  of 
two  of  the  shops 
composing  the 
plant  of  the  Arthur 
Koppel  Company, 
Koppel,  Pa.,  illus- 
trates the  manner 
in  which  provision 
was  made  for  the 
building  of  their 
output,  which  con- 
sists of  contrac- 
tors' dump  cars, 
industrial  rail- 
ways, etc.  The  ma- 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS 


167 


chine  shop  now  being  designed  for  Barnard 
&  Leas  Mfg.  Company,  Moline,  111  (page  168) 
is  another  interesting  illustration  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  certain  special  requirements 
have  been  fulfilled,  and  the  proposed  boiler 
shop  of  the  Ames  Iron  Works,  Oswego,  New 
York,  is  another. 


^/\l/\l/\|y7 

Erecting  Shop 

svlX"\l/   \l/ 

2SCSEI 

n~    < 

I 

|             Miu-hlne 

' 

Sliop                             1 

,  „                  /J  \                 ,  „            /     \                  .    „            N 
ARTHUlt  KOPPEL  CO.   KOPPEL  PA.      The  E"V<»"rt»a  Wacra^ne 

FIG.      12.        A      MACHINE-SHOP     FOR     MANUFACTURE     OF     CON- 
TRACTORS'    DUMP     CARS,     INDUSTRIAL    RAILWAYS, 
ETC.        SPECIAL     WORK     OF     MODERATELY 
HEAVY    CHARACTER. 

GENERAL  MACHINE  WORK 

We  will  now  take  under  consideration  the 
broad  requirements  imposed  by  metal-work- 
ing plants  that  compose  the  third  division  of 
our  classification. 

M  (3)  a, — M  A  T  E  R  i  A  L  s — The  character  and 
amount  of  materials  can  be  anticipated  only  in  small 
part,  owing  to  uncertainty  of  kind  of  work  that  will 
be  done.  Consequently,  there  is  imposed  a  wide  de- 
mand upon  the  receiving  and  stores  departments. 


168 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  169 

The  repair  departments  that  must  be  oper- 
ated by  certain  large  industrial  companies 
come  within  the  group  of  plants  now  under 
consideration.  The  requirements  that  must 
be  met  in  such  cases  are  denned,  of  course, 
more  clearly  than  is  true  for  businesses  that 
depend  entirely  upon  jobbing  work,  but  their 
administration  is  more  difficult  in  one  sense 
than  in  the  latter  case,  because  extraordinary 
demands  upon  the  repair  department  are 
likely  to  develop  when  least  expected.  If 
the  shop  in  question  is  the  one  set  aside  for 
making  repairs  upon  the  equipment  of  a 
large  rolling  mill,  there  will  be  performed 
certain  routine  work  comprising  the  making 
of  parts  that  must  be  regularly  renewed, 
turning  of  new  rolls,  building  of  special  aux- 
iliary equipment,  etc.,  but  the  department 
must  also  be  so  equipped  and  administered 
that  it  can  handle  expeditiously  extra- 
ordinary repairs  of  practically  any  kind  de- 
manded by  the  business. 

The  raw-materials  stores  room  for  a  shop 
of  this  kind  usually  contains  two  distinct 
classes  of  materials,  namely,  those  provided 
for  specific  purposes  such  as  duplicate  ma- 
chine parts,  and  various  materials  which  can 
be  used  in  connection  with  a  variety  of  needs 


170  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

constituting  the  daily  requirements  of  the 
shop.  Each  commission  of  this  kind  pre- 
sents wholly  special  conditions,  which  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  define  broadly  with  any- 
thing like  the  precision  applying  to  the  stores 
of  manufacturing  plants.  In  the  latter  in- 
stance the  raw  material  is  characterized  by 
large  quantities  of  comparatively  small  parts, 
for  the  storage  of  which  very  efficient  means 
can  be  provided.  In  contrast  with  this  con- 
dition, the  materials  that  must  be  available 
in  the  stores  room  serving  the  repair  shop 
are  usually  of  the  most  diversified  character. 
In  certain  cases,  we  find  one,  or  at  the  most 
two  or  three,  duplicate  parts  of  very  large 
size  and  weight,  more  duplicate  parts  of 
smaller  size,  and  a  comparatively  complete 
line  of  miscellaneous  supplies,  there  being, 
however,  but  a  comparatively  small  stock  of 
any  one  article  or  material.  The  large  parts 
may  absolutely  necessitate  the  provision  of 
special  means  for  handling  and  transporta- 
tion, but  the  bulk  of  the  materials  are  such 
as  can  be  handled  readily  without  such  as- 
sistance. When  conditions  are  as  outlined, 
the  stores  department  can  be  laid  out,  how- 
ever, with  somewhat  greater  precision  than 
is  possible  in  a  purely  jobbing  shop. 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  171 

The  very  nature  of  the  jobbing  plant  is 
such  as  to  prohibit  a  close  definition  of  either 
present  or  future  requirements.  The  pur- 
pose in  view  is  to  prepare  for  as  diversified 
a  line  of  performance  as  is  possible,  but  inso- 
far as  raw-material  departments  are  con- 
cerned it  is  practicable  to  carry  a  permanent 
stock  of  only  those  materials  that  can  be 
adapted  to  various  uses.  Provision  must  be 
made,  however,  for  anticipated  requirements 
imposed  by  the  handling  and  temporary  stor- 
ing of  the  special  materials  that  given  orders 
are  likely  to  cover. 

M  (3)  b — EQUIPMENT — Principally  stock  ma- 
chines suited  to  very  wide  range  of  work.  Occa- 
sionally special  machinery  for  possible  repairs  on 
special  parts.  Selection  of  types  and  determination 
of  amount  of  equipment  can  be  approximated  only. 

The  ability  to  perform  almost  any  con- 
ceivable job  is  usually  the  first  requisite 
when  selecting  machinery.  Therefore,  the 
greater  part  of  the  equipment  required  for 
job  and  repair  shops  consists  in  standard 
machine  tools,  designed  with  a  view  to  the 
performance  of  very  wide  ranges  of  work. 
If  this  plan  is  not  followed  a  greater  amount 
of  equipment  will  have  to  be  installed,  part 
of  which  will  stand  idle  a  considerable  por- 


INDUSTRIAL  FLAKTS 

tion  of  the  time,  thus  imposing  a  heavy  bur- 
den upon  the  business  or  department.  Wide 
range  of  usefulness  is  usually  accompanied 
by  lower  efficiency  of  performance,  the  effi- 
ciency being  higher  as  the  design  of  the  ma- 
chine aims  towards  singleness  of  purpose, 
and  becoming  a  maximum  in  the  full  auto- 
matic types.  However,  it  frequently  pays 
to  secure  a  wide  range  of  usefulness  even  at 
the  expense  of  efficiency,  for  the  ability  to 
perform  a  given  job  may  be  the  vital  factor, 
whereas  the  cost  incurred  may  be  secondary 
only.  The  lathe  equipped  with  a  two-spindle 
head  stock  and  the  boring  mill  that  can  be 
increased  in  capacity  by  moving  the  housings 
back  are  extreme  examples.  In  actual  prac- 
tice many  other  procedures  are  of  course  re- 
sorted to  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing 
certain  work,  which  procedures  would  not  be 
considered  good  practice  in  plants  of  the  sec- 
ond group.  Instances  are  the  use  of  a  planer 
or  slotter  where  a  milling  machine  would  do 
the  work  more  cheaply,  or  the  use  of  a  mill- 
ing machine  in  place  of  a  gear  cutter,  or  the 
performance  by  hand  of  certain  operations 
that  under  other  circumstances  could  be  done 
more  economically  by  machine.  Consequently 
it  is  evident  that  the  selection  of  machine- 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  173 

tool  equipment  for  repair  or  jobbing  shops 
is  a  matter  in  connection  with  which  many 
questions  other  than  efficiency  of  machinery 
must  be  taken  into  account. 

Eepair  shops  may  impose  more  specific 
conditions,  as  for  example  in  the  case  of  a 
shop  serving  a  large  rolling  mill,  where  it 
may  be  imperative  to  provide  certain  equip- 
ment that  is  designed  particularly  with  a 
view  to  making  repairs  on  large  parts  of  the 
equipment,  the  breaking  of  which  may  be  a 
remote  possibility  but  so  vital,  if  it  does 
occur,  that  it  is  justifiable  to  have  available 
at  all  times  the  means  necessary  to  effect  the 
repairs.  Then,  again,  there  is  the  equip- 
ment required  to  turn  the  rolls  and  do  other 
single-purpose  routine  work. 

M  (3)  c — BUILDINGS — The  character  of  work  to 
be  done  is  usually  a  governing  factor  in  their  de- 
sign. Precise  definition  of  types  and  sizes  is,  how- 
ever, seldom  practicable. 

The  buildings  or  sections  of  buildings  re- 
quired for  repair  or  jobbing  work  differ 
widely  in  character,  depending  upon  the 
characteristics  of  the  work  to  be  performed. 
However,  their  design  is  governed  by  broad 
conditions  which  affect  principally  over-all 
dimensions  in  plan  and  elevation  and  also  the 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

floor  loads.  They  have  not  the  detailed  pe- 
culiarities which  are  illustrated  by  the  cross- 
sections  of  shops  coming  within  the  second 
group  of  our  classification.  The  exception  to 
this  rule  is  presented  by  repair  shops  where 
definite  requirements  may  be  imposed  by  cer- 
tain specific  lines  as  previously  referred  to. 
As  a  rule,  if  the  work  that  is  to  be  handled 
is  at  all  broad  in  its  characteristics,  there  is 
required  not  only  a  section  with  considerable 
overhead  room  served  by  a  traveling  crane, 
but  also  an  area  with  less  overhead  suitable 
for  machine  tools.  Hence  standard  types  of 
single  or  multiple-story  buildings  adapted  to 
various  classes  of  occupancy  are  not  often 
adequate. 

M  (3)  d — LABOR — Especially  versatile  in  respec- 
tive trades.  Possibly  not  so  capable  at  any  one  job 
as  operators  in  shops  of  second  class,  but  competent 
throughout  a  much  wider  range  of  performance. 

The  labor  employed  in  repair  or  jobbing 
shops  has  the  same  broad  characteristics  as 
other  factors  that  have  been  touched  upon; 
namely,  the  various  employees  should  be  l  i  all- 
around  men"  rather  than  specialists,  and  just 
as  the  all-around  machine  is  not  as  efficient 
as  the  one  designed  for  the  performance  of  a 
specific  job,  so  we  cannot  expect  the  versatile 


METAL-WORKING  PLANTS  175 

mechanic  to  attain  as  high  an  efficiency  of 
performance  as  the  specialist.  The  character 
of  workmen  required  is  a  question  that  must 
be  considered  carefully  by  the  engineer  who 
is  planning  a  new  plant  or  extension,  and 
also  the  status  of  the  trades  in  question  for 
the  locality  where  the  plant  is  to  be  built. 

M  (3)  e — ADMINISTRATION — The  system  of  man- 
agement should  be  the  one  that  will  prove  most 
effective  under  the  circumstances  that  make  it  im- 
possible to  anticipate  exact  conditions  from  day  to 
day.  Each  case  must  be  worked  out  along  special 
lines  and  often  conditions  are  such  as  not  to  justify 
a  highly  perfected  system. 

The  administration  of  all  industrial  plants 
should  be  based  upon  the  same  fundamental 
principles,  irrespective  of  the  nature  of  the 
work  performed,  but  the  details  of  the  admin- 
istrative system  may  differ  materially  for 
each  of  the  three  groups  in  our  classifica- 
tion, and,  in  fact,  must  be  varied  for  different 
plants  coming  within  the  same  group. 

The  primary  condition  that  must  be  dealt 
with  in  connection  with  a  manufacturing 
plant  is  the  one  presented  by  an  output  made 
up  of  comparatively  small  articles  turned 
out  in  large  quantities  and  sold  from  stock; 
therefore,  the  work  can  be  planned  consid- 
erably in  advance  and  with  a  very  great  de- 


176  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

gree  of  exactness.  The  repetitive  nature  of 
the  work  permits  of  the  establishment  of 
definite  standards  for  the  manufacture  of 
the  entire  output,  which  standards  when  es- 
tablished are  adhered  to  until  the  experi- 
mental departments  have  devised  more  effi- 
cient means. 

Plants  belonging  to  the  second  group  pos- 
sess the  characteristics  just  referred  to  only 
in  part.  While  all  the  output  may  be  built 
in  accordance  with  stock  orders,  the  trade 
requirements  are  frequently  such  that  it  is 
not  practicable  to  carry  a  very  large  number 
of  duplicate  units  of  the  product.  Standard 
methods  of  doing  the  work  have  to  do  more 
with  the  performance  of  detail  operations 
than  work  upon  the  parts  considered  as  a 
whole.  The  nature  of  the  equipment  em- 
ployed must  be  such  as  to  make  it  much  more 
flexible,  insofar  as  its  uses  are  concerned, 
than  is  necessary  in  the  manufacturing  plant. 
Efficient  performance  requires,  as  a  regular 
function  of  the  administrative  system,  one 
or  more  specialists  whose  duties  consist  in 
the  preparation  of  definite  instructions  cov- 
ering the  manner  in  which  the  various  opera- 
tions must  be  performed,  taking  into  account 
the  exact  means  that  will  be  available. 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  177 

The  pronounced  characteristics  of  the  job- 
bing or  repair  shop  are  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  plan  the  work  as  a  whole  for 
a  considerable  period  in  advance,  nor  is  it 
possible  to  establish  fixed  methods  of  per- 
forming certain  jobs  of  like  character  which 
may  be  received  at  odd  intervals,  as  the  ne- 
cessity for  completing  such  jobs  in  the  least 
possible  time  may  require  somewhat  differ- 
ent procedure  in  each  case  owing  to  the  de- 
mands of  other  work  that  is  being  handled. 
Effective  administration  of  shops  comprising 
the  group  in  question  must  necessarily  be 
accomplished  through  a  system  permitting  of 
very  great  flexibility,  and  there  is  required 
a  degree  of  personal  contact  between  the 
executive  head  and  the  shop  superintendents 
that  may  not  be  desirable  or  practicable  for 
plants  in  the  first  or  second  group.  Each 
case  must  be  worked  out  along  special  lines. 

M    (3)   A,  B,  C,  D,  E — RESUME 

It  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing  that  plants 
for  businesses  or  departments  coming  within 
this  group  can  be  laid  out  with  the  least  pre- 
cision, as  compared  with  those  composing 
the  two  groups  formerly  considered.  The 
equipment  must  be  selected  with  a  view  to  a 
wide  range  of  performance  rather  than  to  the 


178  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

manufacture  or  building  of  a  certain  char- 
acter or  volume  of  output. 

This  wide  range  of  usefulness,  rather  than 
the  attainment  of  high  economy  of  single 
operating,  is  usually  the  ruling  factor.  Occa- 
sionally the  need  of  certain  definite  work  re- 
quires the  installation  of  special  machines. 
The  type  of  buildings  must  be  based  upon 
certain  broad  requirements,  and  to  the  ex- 
tent that  large  and  heavy  work  is  handled 
they  are  special  in  character.  Administra- 
tion methods  must  be  suited  to  comparatively 
uncertain  conditions,  and  while  in  one  sense 
such  conditions  call  for  the  most  highly  per- 
fected system,  there  may  be  incidental 
reasons  which  prohibit  or  do  not  justify  their 
introduction.  In  any  case  the  system  must  be 
one  which  operates  from  day  to  day. 

While  the  foregoing  discussion  regarding 
repair  and  jobbing  shop  is  too  general  in 
character  to  be  of  direct  value  to  the  engineer 
who  is  engaged  upon  the  planning  of  a  given 
shop,  yet  he  will  find  that  the  solution  is 
more  readily  attained  if  he  himself  and  those 
with  whom  he  is  co-operating  have  a  correct 
realization  of  the  limits  of  the  problem  as 
compared  with  those  presented  by  shops  for 
work  that  belongs  to  the  first  two  groups. 


METAL-WORKING   PLANTS  179 

The  shop  of  the  Lehigh  Coal  &  Navigation 
Company,  illustrated  on  page  164  was  de- 
signed primarily  to  handle  repair  and  job- 
bing work.  One  of  the  side  bays  is  provided 
with  a  drop  pit  and  an  overhead  traveling 
crane  that  are  used  in  connection  with  the  re- 
pairing of  standard-gauge  locomotives.  The 
other  side  bay  is  used  in  part  for  machine 
work  and  in  part  for  the  repair  of  narrow- 
gauge  locomotives  of  the  steam  and  electric 
types.  The  main  bay  of  the  shop  is  occupied 
by  the  large  electrically  driven  machine  tools 
and  the  department  for  the  performance  of 
miscellaneous  repair  work  upon  pumps,  en- 
gines and  general  mine  equipment.  There 
is  also  a  certain  amount  of  new  machinery 
built  in  this  shop. 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  usually  found 
that  the  requirements  presented  by  a  given 
metal- working  business  do  not  fall  wholly 
within  the  clear  confines  of  any  one  of  the 
three  divisions  making  up  the  classification, 
although  in  almost  every  case  there  is  a  pre- 
dominating tendency  toward  one  of  them.  If 
this  happens  to  be  the  first  division,  a  definite 
and  clear-cut  solution  should  be  expected; 
if  the  second  division,  the  solution  will  not 
be  as  clearly  defined  and  the  selection  of 


180  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

equipment,  its  arrangement,  and  that  of  the 
departments,  will  represent  but  a  compro- 
mise of  the  to  some  extent  conflicting  re- 
quirements imposed  by  the  diversified  kinds 
of  work ;  if  the  third  division,  the  solution  is 
usually  but  an  approximation,  as  it  must  be 
worked  out  from  comparatively  meagre  data. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MACHINE    SHOPS    AND    THEIR    SPECIFIC 
REQUIREMENTS 

THE  preceding  chapter  dealt  with  certain 
of  the  broad  characteristics  of  metal- 
working  plants;  consequently  the  discussion 
was  more  specific  than  the  treatment  accorded 
our  subject  in  the  chapters  that  preceded  it. 
It  is  now  proposed  to  exemplify  the  knowl- 
edge of  details  of  the  most  specific  character 
which  must  be  possessed  by  the  engineer  who 
undertakes  the  planning  and  arranging  of  in- 
dustrial plants,  limiting  the  consideration  to 
certain  features  of  machine-shop  practice  as 
they  follow  logically  upon  the  questions  last 
considered. 

The  primary  object  when  arranging  or 
planning  a  machine  shop  is  to  provide  for  the 
most  efficient  performance  of  different  kinds 
of  work  upon  definite  amounts  of  various  ma- 
terials, so  that  the  characteristics  of  the  re- 
sulting plant  shall  be  the  direct  outgrowth  of 
181 


182  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

a  detailed  definition  of  all  of  the  factors  inci- 
dent to  the  execution  of  such  work.  This  in- 
cludes, of  course,  a  thorough  understanding 
of  all  of  the  broader  requirements  which  have 
been  touched  upon  in  the  preceding  chapters, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  routing  problem. 

The  machine-shop  problem  considered  in 
its  most  elemental  sense  resolves  itself  into 
one  of  removing  chips  from  the  parts  upon 
which  the  work  is  to  be  done.  This  is  equally 
true  whether  we  consider  a  lathe  tool  remov- 
ing a  heavy  turning  from  a  locomotive  tire  or 
a  file  smoothing  a  metal  surface,  an  emery 
wheel  cleaning  up  the  face  of  a  casting  or  a 
scraper  putting  the  finishing  touches  on  the 
shears  of  a  lathe.  Tool  steel  is  used  for  by 
far  the  greater  amount  of  work,  so  it  should 
be  expected  that  any  marked  improvement  in 
its  composition  or  method  of  treatment, 
making  possible  the  removal  of  a  greater 
quantity  of  chips  in  a  given  time,  would  re- 
sult in  many  radical  changes  in  machine-shop 
methods  and  consequently  in  the  characteris- 
tics of  machine  shops.  The  results  secured 
by  the  application  of  scientific  methods  are 
admirably  shown  in  Mr.  Fred  W.  Taylor's 
classic  work  upon  the  art  of  cutting  metals. 
Mr.  Taylor's  discovery  of  a  new  method  of 


MACHINE   SHOPS  183 

treating  certain  alloy  steels,  which  has  re- 
sulted in  the  perfection  of  vastly  more  effi- 
cient cutting  tools  than  formerly  existed,  is 
now  too  well  known  to  require  explanation. 
Machine-tool  equipment  in  use  when  the 
high-speed  wheels  were  introduced  proved  so 
unsuited  for  the  new  demands  that  it  was 
soon  found  that  no  halfway  measure  would 
be  sufficient,  but  that  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
consider immediately  the  whole  subject  of 
metal  working  from  an  entirely  new  stand- 
point. Just  about  this  time,  the  motor  drive 
was  being  strongly  advocated  by  the  manu- 
facturers building  such  equipment,  and  it 
was  evident,  almost  from  the  start,  that  the 
individual  motor  drive  for  machine-tool 
operation  promised  a  satisfactory  solution 
to  the  new  problems  of  greater  power  and 
better  speed  regulation.  The  perfection 
of  the  motor  as  well  as  the  tool  steel 
had  come  about  through  the  application 
of  thoroughly  scientific  methods  of  in- 
vestigation and  deduction,  and  when  the  lead- 
ing machine-tool  builders  applied  these  same 
methods  to  their  work  there  resulted,  in  a 
comparatively  short  time,  a  close  competition 
for  supremacy  between  the  tool  steel  on  the 
one  hand  and  machine  tools  on  the  other. 


184  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

Prior  to  this  time  much  had  been  done 
toward  perfecting  methods  for  administering 
machine-shop  work,  as  is  attested  by  the 
work  of  Mr.  Fred  W.  Taylor,  Mr.  H.  L.  Gantt 
and  others.  The  true  import  of  this  work 
was  not  appreciated  by  shop  managers  gen- 
erally, however,  until  they  were  confronted 
with  the  wide  differences  existing  between 
the  amount  of  work  that  could  be  accom- 
plished in  connection  with  the  modern  equip- 
ment when  operating  under  test  conditions 
and  the  figures  of  average  results  secured 
in  their  shops  with  the  same  kind  of  equip- 
ment. 

The  engineer  who  is  not  thoroughly  con- 
versant with  the  present  high  achievements 
in  both  the  physical  and  administrative  de- 
partments of  machine-shop  practice,  is 
wholly  unqualified  for  laying  out,  designing, 
and  building  machine  shops  capable  of  the 
highest  efficiency  now  securable.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  as  the  use  of  scientific  methods 
has  resulted  in  a  development  which  has  been 
so  fruitful  of  results  that  it  may  be  said  that 
machine-shop  practice  is,  in  many  of  its  more 
important  aspects,  approaching  a  stage  of 
standardization.  By  this  I  do  not  mean  that 
important  advances  in  connection  with  many 


MACHINE   SHOPS  185 

of  the  details  that  enter  into  machine-shop 
practice  will  not  be  made,  but  rather  that  the 
full  benefits  to  be  derived  under  the  present 
status  of  the  art  have  been  made  available 
through  scientific  analytical  study  and  logical 
deduction. 

The  starting  point  for  standardization  is 
always  in  the  tool  room  and  properly  begins 
with  the  cutting  tools.  The  adoption  of  stand- 
ard shapes  and  sizes  for  lathe  tools,  boring 
cutters,  and  chisels  is  now  the  general  prac- 
tice, as  is  also  the  method  .of  forging  and 
treating  the  tools.  Even  in  small  shops  it 
pays  to  have  one  man  grind  all  the  tools, 
absolutely  prohibiting  the  workman  access  to 
any  grinder  for  this  purpose.  The  steel  is 
now  bought  by  several  large  users  according 
to  specifications,  different  compositions  being 
specified  for  different  classes  of  tools,  and 
it  is  likely  that  this  practice  will  become 
standard. 

While  what  has  just  been  said  regarding 
cutting  tools  is  now  generally  appreciated 
and  acted  upon,  the  same  careful  attention  is 
not  given  to  many  other  accessories  which 
rightly  form  a  part  of  the  tool-room  equip- 
ment. All  kinds  of  bolts  and  blocking  should 
be  standardized.  In  certain  shops  it  is  now 


186 


MACHINE   SHOPS  187 

the  practice  always  to  issue  with  a  set  of  bolts 
a  standard  wrench  exactly  fitting  the  nut. 
When  these  bolts  are  returned  to  the  tool 
room  each  one  is  examined  to  see  that  it  has 
not  been  damaged  and  that  the  nut  is  hand- 
loose,  and  if  this  is  not  the  case  the  parts  are 
not  returned  to  the  racks  until  they  have  been 
repaired. 

It  is  customary  in  large  machine  shops  to 
use  tool  rooms  for  storage  purposes  only,  all 
grinding  and  tool  making  being  done  in  a 
separate  department,  which  in  some  cases  is 
not  fenced  off  from  the  rest  of  the  shop.  The 
desirability  of  this  plan,  as  well  as  many 
other  common  procedures,  depends  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  upon  the  number  of  men  em- 
ployed and  the  character  of  the  work.  The 
function  of  the  tool  room,  however,  is  always 
the  same;  and  to  preserve  it  properly  it  is 
necessary  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the 
making,  caretaking,  and  issuing  of  tools,  and 
the  productive  work  in  connection  with  which 
the  tools  and  accessories  are  used. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  call  attention  to 
the  important  bearing  that  all  the  questions 
pertaining  to  tool-room  practice  have  upon 
the  work  of  arranging  and  planning  machine 
shops.  They  govern  in  part  the  character 


188  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

and  amount  of  tool-making  equipment  and  its 
location — the  character  and  amount  of  small 
tools  which  must  be  accommodated  in  the  tool 
room  proper — and  indirectly  they  have,  of 
course,  a  fundamental  bearing  upon  the  en- 
tire machine  shop.  A  development  in  the  line 
of  standardization  is  exemplified  by  the  sec- 
tional racks  which  have  been  designed  for 
the  storage  of  small  tools.  Such  racks  are  il- 
lustrated in  Figures  14  and  15  which  are 
views  in  the  tool  room  of  the  Tabor  Manu- 
facturing Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  It  will 
be  noted  that  special  receptacles  are  provided 
for  such  parts  as  cutting  tools,  bolts,  wood 
clamp  blocks,  and  other  auxiliary  equipment 
which  until  recently  were  not  standardized  or 
carried  in  the  tool  room. 

A  very  interesting  example  of  the  stand- 
ardization of  the  lathe  and  planer  tools  on  a 
large  scale  is  the  central  tool-dressing  plant, 
recently  established  in  the  Philadelphia  Navy 
Yard,  which  supplies  to  all  navy  yards  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  high-speed  lathe  and  planer 
tools  that  have  been  forged,  treated,  and 
ground  to  standards.  Each  of  the  various 
yards  is  equipped  with  an  automatic  grinder 
for  regrinding  the  tools  until  they  require  re- 
dressing, when  they  are  returned  to  the  cen- 


FIG.    15.       SECTIONAL   RACKS    FOR    ARBORS,   BORING   BARS,    CUT- 
TING  TOOLS,   ETC. 
Tabor    Manufacturing    Company. 

189 


190  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

tral  tool-dressing  plant  at  Philadelphia  for 
replacement  by  newly  dressed  tools.  The 
great  advantages  of  this  scheme  are  that  all 
yards  are  equipped  with  tools  of  standard 
shapes  and  of  uniformly  high  quality,  and  as 
the  forging,  dressing,  and  grinding  of  tools 
are  done  in  large  lots,  substantial  reductions 
in  cost  result.  This  system  for  the  standard- 
ization and  distribution  of  tools  was  intro- 
duced in  the  Philadelphia  Navy  Yard  by  Mr. 
H.  K.  Hathaway,  and  it  set  an  example  that 
will  probably  be  followed  by  railroads  and 
other  large  concerns  operating  a  number  of 
machine  shops. 

Of  course,  the  standardization  of  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  small-tool  equipment  can 
be  accomplished  only  after  the  detailed  meth- 
ods of  performing  the  shop  work  have  them- 
selves been  standardized.  It  is  in  this  regard 
that  scientific  management  plays  such  an  im- 
portant part,  for  it  is  possible  to  define  the 
most  economical  manner  of  performing  each 
individual  operation  only  after  "time  study" 
(which  is  a  part  of  the  type  of  management 
referred  to)  has  resulted  in  the  acquisition 
of  a  knowledge  of  all  details.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  establishment  of  standard  shapes 
for  tools  came  about  through  such  study; 


MACHINE    SHOPS  191 

and  many  other  instances  could  be  cited 
where  the  results  of  scientific  research  are 
made  available  through  their  incorporation 
in  automatic  machinery. 

The  characteristics  of  different  classes  of 
large  machine-tool  equipment  have  been  re- 
ferred to  previously,  but  as  a  detailed  consid- 
eration of  this  important  division  of  machine- 
shop  practice  would  require  the  utilization  of 
much  more  space  than  I  have  available,  I  will 
not  attempt  to  take  up  individually  the  vari- 
ous interesting  types.  I  will  merely  refer  to 
some  of  the  most  important  considerations 
pertaining  directly  to  or  closely  allied  with 
machine-tool  equipment  which  confront  the 
engineer  who  is  arranging  or  planning  a  ma- 
chine shop.  *These  will  be  brought  out  in 
connection  with  a  study  of  the  individual 
motor  drive  and  by  certain  brief  allusions  to 
methods  of  administering  machine-shop  work. 

The  driving  of  mechanical-tool  equipment 
by  individual  motors  will  be  taken  up  rather 
fully,  for  its  consideration  illustrates  partic- 
ularly well  the  kind  of  scientific  studies  which 
it  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  exemplify, 
and  further,  the  subject  is  itself  one  which, 
on  account  of  its  wide  application,  frequently 
confronts  the  consulting  engineer.  While  the 


192  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

discussion  relates  specifically  to  metal-work- 
ing plants,  many  of  the  conclusions  are  so 
broad  as  to  apply  equally  to  the  driving  of 
other  kinds  of  equipment,  and,  as  already 
pointed  out,  considerations  of  equipment  and 
construction  are  closely  interlocked. 

Generally  speaking,  it  is  conceded  that  the 
proper  drive  for  machine-tool  equipment  is 
the  electric  motor,  but  there  is  some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
individual  or  group  methods  of  driving 
should  prevail.  While  it  is  the  purpose  of 
the  discussion  that  follows  to  point  out  a 
method  for  determining  this  question  in  each 
case  by  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  problem, 
yet  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  state  that  the 
results  of  such  study  in  connection  with  a 
great  number  of  machine  shops  indicates  con- 
clusively that  usually  the  requirements  are 
properly  met  only  through  resorting  in  part 
to  the  individual  drive  and  in  part  to  the 
group  drive.  The  principal  advantages  of- 
fered by  the  individual  motor  drive  are,  no 
doubt,  generally  familiar  to  the  reader,  so 
it  would  not  be  necessary  to  include  the  fol- 
lowing discussion  were  it  not  my  object  to 
display  thereby  the  proper  method  of  attack- 
ing fsuch  problems.  The  course. .of  reasoning 


MACHINE  SHOPS  193 

followed  in  this  instance  is  but  typical  of  the 
regular  procedure  adopted  by  the  capable  in- 
dustrial engineer. 

The  broad  considerations  bearing  upon  the 
individual  motor  drive  for  machine  tools  are 
illustrated  in  Figure  16.  This  chart  is  pre- 
sented only  for  the  purpose  of  showing  how 
far-reaching  is  the  .subject  with  which  we 
are  dealing,  and  is  of  value  only  insofar 
as  it  indicates  the  scope  of  investigation  re- 
quired. Certain  broad  characteristics  of  the 
requirements  of  the  machine-tool  drive  can 
be  classified  under  the  three  subdivisions  of 
metal-working  plants  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  For  example,  machine  equip- 
ment suitable  for  manufacturing  work  is  us- 
ually designed  with  a  view  to  a  comparatively 
small  range  of  adjustment,  so  necessitating 
the  simplest  conditions  insofar  as  drive  is 
concerned,  namely,  constant  speed  operation 
of  the  motor.  In  shops  classified  under  the 
second  heading  little  opportunity  exists  for 
duplication  in  the  sense  just  referred  to.  The 
machines  must  handle  a  variety  of  work,  and 
even  those  purchased  for  the  performance  of 
specific  operations  are  usually  suited  for 
other  purposes  so  that  they  may  be  kept  busy 
the  greater  part  of  the  time.  Variations  in 


MACHINE   SHOPS  195 

size  of  work,  materials,  and  cutters  demand 
an  adjustable-speed*  drive  together  with 
change  feeds  if  most  economical  results  are 
desired.  This  is  true  to  a  still  greater  degree 
of  machines  used  in  shops  of  the  third  class. 

Such  an  analysis  as  has  just  been  given  is 
wholly  inadequate,  however,  for  the  purpose 
of  solving  the  drive  requirements  presented 
by  machine  tools  operating  under  certain  es- 
tablished conditions.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this  result  the  problem  should  be  analyzed  in 
substantially  the  manner  outlined  below.  I 
do  not  wish  to  create  the  impression,  how- 
ever, that  I  consider  it  necessary  to  analyze 
the  subject  in  this  way  in  each  instance,  for 
the  work  that  has  been  done  by  the  leading 
tool  manufacturers  who  have  conducted  ex- 
tensive experiments  in  connection  with  the 
machines  they  build  has  rendered  such  a 
course  unnecessary  except  in  isolated  cases. 

Machine-tool-drive  requirements  can  be 
studied  advantageously  in  connection  with 
the  charts  given  below.  Figures  17  and  18 
relate  to  the  different  characters  of  load 
imposed  upon  machine  tools  necessitating  re- 

*The  words  "adjustable  speed"  were  proposed  by  the  writer 
before  the  International  Electric  Congress  of  1904  as  more 
accurately  describing  the  condition  of  operation  than  the  words 
"variable  speed,"  and  this  term  has  since  been  generally 
adopted. 


(1)  Steady  Load  Exhaust  Pan 

f  ( Down  draft  system) 

(C)  Constant  Speed<£_^(2)  Fluctuating  Load  Full  automatic  lathe 

^M3)  Heavy  Momentary  Loads  — Punch 
FIG.    17.      CHAEACTEES   OF   LOAD,   CONSTANT   SPEED  DRIVE. 

-r(l)  Constant  H.P.— Machines  working 
P  under  special  conditions. 

/-(2)  H.P.  increase  with  increase  of  r.p.m. 
(X)  Through  Scale  ^       pogitive  pregsure  ^^  l&rgQ  latheg 

/  \  and  boring  mills. 

(A)  Fixed  speed  /  ^(3)  H.P.  decreases  with  increase  on  r.p.m. 

Capable  of/  Certain  drill  presses  and  lathes. 

Adjustment  \ 

\  A 1)  Steady  —Positive  pressure  blowers. 

(E)  At  Any  Point Mz}  Fluctuating  — Engine  lathes. 

^(  3)  Heavy  momentary  load  —  Planer. 
FIG.  18.     CHARACTERS  OF  LOAD  FOR  ADJUSTABLE  SPEED  DRIVE, 

( 1)  If  work  rotates  — Ratio  of  maximum 
to  minimum  diameters  of  work. 

(  2)  If  cutters  rotate Ratio  of  maximum 

to  minimum  diameters  of  cutters. 
/  / 
(R)  Range  in 

Speed    XT >  ( 3)  Ratio  of  hardest  to  softest 

materials  worked. 

•  (4)  Rind  of  operations  — Whether  cutting, 
filling  or  polishing, 

FIG.     19.       FACTORS    THAT    INFLUENCE    RANGE    IN    SPEED. 
,(l)  Uniformity  of  Material  worked. 
•  (  2)  Uniformity  of  cutters. 

(  N  )   Number  of  ^ >  (  3)  Number  of  feeds  provided. 

Speeds.  ^ 

»(4)  Facilities  enabling  workman 

to  determine  proper  speed. 
FIG.    20.      FACTORS    INFLUENCING    NUMBER    OF    SPEEDS. 

196 


MACHINE   SHOPS  197 

spectively  the  constant-speed  and  adjustable- 
speed  drive.  Figure  19  is  an  analysis  of  the 
factors  determining  the  range  in  speed,  and 
Figure  20  the  factors  governing  the  numbers 
of  speeds  for  the  adjustable  speed  drive  in 
connection  with  machines  using  cutters.  In 
other  words,  the  condition  that  it  is  necessary 
to  establish  in  connection  with  the  constant- 
speed  drive  is  the  load  curve  to  which  the 
motor  will  be  subjected,  whereas  with  the  ad- 
justable-speed drive  we  must  determine  the 
range  from  minimum  speed  to  maximum 
speed  and  the  number  of  operating  speeds 
within  this  range,  and  then  we  must  know 
just  what  the  load  curve  will  be  for  each. 

Adjustable  speed  may  be  desirable  on 
grinding  machines,  depending  upon  the  ratio 
of  maximum  to  minimum  wheel  diameters 
and  other  matters  that  must  be  considered 
separately  in  individual  cases.  Machines  for 
punching  and  shearing,  while  usually  ar- 
ranged for  constant  speed,  frequently  require 
an  adjustable-speed  drive.  For  example,  as- 
sume a  punch  operating  at  twenty-eight 
strokes  per  minute;  the  operator  may  have 
work  of  such  a  character  that  he  can  easily 
punch  a  hole  each  stroke,  while  in  another 
case,  because  of  heavier  sheets,  or  greater  ac- 


198 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


(K) 

Machines , 
Using 
Cutters 


(GO 

Grinding 
Machines 
Factors          / 


Governing     / 

Horse-PowerN. 

Required  by       x. 

\  ^v 


( 1)  Character  of  Worked  Material. 

(2)  Cutting  Speed. 

.(3)  Depth  and  Feed  of  Cut. 

( 4)  Shape  of  Cutter. 
(( 5)  Friction  Load. 

r(l)  Character  of  Worked  Material. 
,(2)  Character  of  Grinding  Material. 

(3)  Conditions  at  Grinding  Contact. 
'(4)  Feed  and  Cutting  Speed. 

(5)  Friction  Load. 


(p)  (  1)  Character  of  Worked  Material. 

Punching    /(2)  Rate  of  Parting  Material. 
and  Shearing£(3)  Tota]  Area  Parted> 
Machines    \4)Friction  Load> 


(D) 

Machines  for 
Changing 


Machines  of  this  class  do  work  of  such 
a  diversified  character,  depending 
on  gucll  variable  factors,  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  treat  them., 
other  than  individually. 


FIG.    21. 


FACTORS    GOVERNING    HORSE    POWER    REQUIRED    FOR 
DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    MACHINES. 

curacy  required,  he  is  compelled  to  skip  every 
other  stroke,  so  punching  but  fourteen  holes 
a  minute,  while  if  the  machine  would  permit 
he  might  readily  do  twenty-  two.  Such  a  sav- 
ing on  this  class  of  machinery  often  yields  a 
large  actual  return,  as  the  time  required  for 
setting  up  or  making  ready  is  usually  small. 

The  amount  of  horse  power  required  for 
machines  of  different  types  depends  on  the 
factors  given  in  Figure  21. 


MACHINE   SHOPS  199 

The  principal  items  to  consider  when  de- 
signing or  selecting  machine  drives  have  been 
given,  but  to  explain  more  fully  the  line  of 
reasoning  that  should  be  followed,  let  us  as- 
sume definite  conditions,  and  consider  the 
equipment  needed  to  fulfil  them.  The  letters 
and  numbers  given  below  refer  to  the  charts. 

EXAMPLE. 

LATHE  A-B  for  general  work  in  shop  of  Blank  & 
Co.,  manufacturers  of  air  compressors. 

General  features  of  this  plant  and  its  or- 
ganization that  influence  type  of  drive  (see 
Figure  16). 

E.B.-l.  The  machine  under  consideration  is  to  run 
in  an  old  plant,  so  no  saving  in  cost  of 
buildings  could  be  effected  by  type  of  drive. 

E.B.-2.  The  natural  light  at  the  point  where  the 
lathe  is  to  be  located  is  very  poor,  so  it  is 
important  not  to  obstruct  it  any  more  than 
absolutely  necessary. 

E.B.-3.  Artificial  light  has  in  the  past  been  supplied 
by  an  independent  company,  but  they  desire 
to  install  a  power  plant  that  will  take  care 
of  this  feature  as  well  as  power.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  depend  largely  upon  general  il- 
lumination by  arc  lamps  with  incandescent 
lights  for  detail  work. 

E.S.-1-2,  and  E.T.-l.  For  roughing  work  the  best 
alloy  steels,  forged,  treated,  and  maintained 
by  special  department,  assuring  uniformity 
and  high  efficiency,  will  be  used. 


200  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

E.L.-1,  2,  3,  4.  Character  of  work  necessitates  con- 
stant use  of  power  crane,  making  overhead 
belting  and  fixtures  objectionable  and  dif- 
ficult to  provide  for  on  account  of  location 
in  main  bay  of  shop.  As  cost  of  power  in 
this  plant  amounts  to  less  than  3  per  cent 
of  total  cost  of  product,  it  is  not  a  deter- 
mining factor  in  character  of  drive. 

E.M.-2.  The  type  of  management  being  introduced 
at  this  plant  should  ultimately  assure  in- 
telligent direction  of  work  and  proper  use 
of  equipment. 

Referring  to  Figure  18s — 

(A)-X-l-F-2.  Majority  of  work  (probably 
80  per  cent)  will  be  steel  and  gray-iron 
castings  between  18  in.  and  48  in.  diameter. 
Maximum  conditions  call  for  removal  of 
same  amount  of  metal  between  these  limits, 
and  approximately  constant  cutting  speed. 
Maximum  horse-power  requirements  are 
consequently  constant  through  the  range, 
but  subject  to  fluctuations  at  any  one  point 
below  the  said  maximum. 

Referring  to  Figure  19  : — 

R-l.  At  times  it  will  be  necessary  to  ma- 
chine work  as  small  as  10  in.  in  diameter, 
or  as  large  as  60  in.  diameter;  consequently 
a  range  in  speed  of  6:1  would  be  required 
for  this  purpose. 

R-2.     Cutters  will  always  be  stationary. 

R-3.  The  ratio  of  hardest  to  softest  material  re- 
quired by  specification  will  be  approximately 
2:1.  This  will  increase  the  necessary  speed 
range  to  12:1. 


MACHINE   SHOPS  201 

R-4.  The  majority  of  work  will  be  roughing  and 
finishing  with  cutters.  Some  filing  and  fin- 
ishing with  emery  cloth  will,  however,  be 
necessary  and  for  this  purpose  experience 
would  dictate  a  cutting  speed  of  150  ft.  per 
minute  on  10  in. .  diameter.  It  will  be  nec- 
essary to  provide  a  cutting  speed  of  15  ft. 
per  minute  on  the  largest  diameter  on  ac- 
count of  the  frail  character  and  difficulty 
of  driving  some  of  the  castings  to  be  ma- 
chined. Total  range  of  speed  is  determined 
by  limiting  conditions  of  a  cutting  speed  of 
15  ft.  per  minute  on  60-in.  work  and  150 
ft.  per  minute  on  10-in.  work.  I  have  pur- 
posely chosen  these  extreme  conditions  to 
illustrate  my  point  better.  In  practice  a  60- 
in.  lathe  is  seldom  required  to  run  at  57 
r.  p.  m. 


150 


10  X  3.14  =  57.3  r.p.m. 


12 
15 


60  X  3.14  =  .955  r.p.m. 


12 


Consequently,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the 
face  plate  of  the  lathe  should  run  from  1 
r.  p.  m.  to  57  r.  p.  m. 


202  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

Referring  to  Figure  20: — 

N-l.  It  was  stated  above  that  the  character 
of  material  would  vary  in  the  proportion  of 
2  '.I,  this  being  a  requirement  of  the  pro- 
ducts manufactured.  Uniformity  of  material, 
or  how  nearly  the  requirements  can  be  at- 
tained under  shop  conditions,  is  one  of  the 
factors  influencing  the  number  of  face-plate 
speeds.  A  fulty-equipped  laboratory,  under 
the  direction  of  an  able  chemist,  assures  a 
much  more  uniform  product  in  the  plant  in 

nstion  than  is  usually  the  case.  A  great 
of  experiment  and  investigation  is  nec- 
essary before  definite  assertions  can  be  made 
in  this  direction,  but  castings  from  the  same 
pattern  should  not  vary  more  than  20  per 
cent. 

N-2.  Cutters  of  the  character  indicated  above 
(E.S.I)  should  not  vary  in  efficiency  more 
than  10  per  cent. 

N-3.  The  full  consideration  of  this  point  involves 
an  understanding  of  the  laws  governing 
speed,  feed  and  cut  for  various  materials. 
It  will  not  be  practicable  to  include  here  full 
data  on  this  detail.  Hundreds  of  tons  of 
steel  and  cast-iron  have  been  cut  up  to  de- 
termine these  relations,  and  constant  experi- 
ment is  necessary  to  keep  abreast  of  rapid 
improvements.  I  will  only  say  that  it  is 
quite  as  necessary  to  provide  an  adequate 
number  of  feeds  as  it  is  spindle-speeds,  and 
in  fact  a  limited  number  of  either  one  of 
these  factors  will  give  efficient  results  pro- 
vided a  very  close  regulation  can  be  had  on 
the  other. 


MACHINE  SHOPS  203 

In  the  present  instance  it  was  not  consid- 
ered advisable  to  specify  changes  to  the 
standard  feeding  mechanism,  as  this  feature 
had  been  well  taken  care  of  by  the  builder. 
As  the  operation  of  the  machine  is  ultimately 
governed  by  the  facilities  at  the  disposal  of 
the  machinist  who  runs  it,  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  this  point  be  given  most  care- 
ful study.  It  involves  practically  every 
feature  of  shop  system  and  management,  and 
it  is  only  under  such,  systems  as  that  de- 
veloped by  Mr.  Fred  W.  Taylor,  of  which 
functional  foremanship  is  but  a  single  detail, 
that  the  conditions  as  outlined  above  can  be 
fulfilled.  It  necessitates  that  the  operator 
of  the  machine  be  informed  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  material,  efficiency  of  the  cutter, 
proper  cutting  speed  in  consideration  of 
duration  of  cut,  and  many  other  equally 
important  factors. 

So  it  will  be  seen  that  we  cannot  arrive 
at  any  data  which  would  enable  us  to  specify 
positively  the  number  of  spindle-speeds  re- 
quired. Our  conclusions  must  necessarily 
be  based  principally  on  experience  in  shop 
practice,  and  for  this  reason  engineers  differ 
widely  in  their  views.  For  the  example 
under  consideration  speeds  increasing  in  in- 
crements of  15  per  cent  are,  in  our  estima- 
tion, quite  as  close  as  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  It  is  well,  however,  to  err  on 
the  safe  side,  providing  too  many  speeds 
rather  than  too  few. 
Eef erring  to  Figure  21  ;— 

H-K-1,  2,  3,  4.     Maximum  permissible  cut- 
ting speed  on  steel  castings  will  be  60  ft.  per 


204  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

minute;  on  gray-iron  castings  60  ft.  per 
minute  (determined  by  actual  requirements 
on  a  large  variety  of  work).  Maximum  cut, 
cast-steel,  3/8  in.  deep,  1/16  in.  feed;  gray- 
iron,  3/8  in.  deep,  1/16  in.  feed.  (These 
conditions  are  established  by  character  of 
work.) 

The  experiments  conducted  to  determine 
the  laws  governing  speed,  feed  and  depth  of 
cut,  for  various  materials  refered  to  above 
(N-3)  have  been  made  available  for  pur- 
poses of  design  by  means  of  slide  rules, 
based  on  the  derived  empirical  formulae. 

For  the  depth  of  cut  and  feed  under  con- 
sideration (cast-steel)  the  calculated  pres- 
sure on  the  tool  would  be:  5550,  or  horse- 
power required:  5550  X  60 

=10.1  hp. 

33,000 

H-K-5.  The  friction  load  can  only  be  arrived  at 
through  experience  and  depends  not  only  on 
the  machine,  but  on  the  character  and 
method  of  driving  work.  Experimental  data 
on  machines  quite  similar  to  the  one  under 
consideration  would  indicate  3  horse  power 
through  the  entire  range  as  sufficient  to  al- 
low for  this  purpose.  These  conditions  are 
plotted  in  Figure  22. 

It  will  be  noted  in  Figure  22  that  the  horse 
power  falls  off  on  either  side  of  the  working 
part  of  the  scale.  While  it  is  easy  to  theorize 
as  to  the  horse  power  required  for  work  of 
various  diameters,  in  actual  practice  the  con- 


MACHINE  SHOPS 


205 


ditions  are  about  as  shown.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  machine  under  consideration 
should  be  primarily  adapted  for  the  majority 
of  work  that  it  will  handle.  We  have  as- 
sumed that  80  per  cent  of  this  will  be  between 
18  inches  and  48  inches  in  diameter,  so  that 
work  outside  of  these  limits  is  the  exception. 


10.5 
7.5 

•o 

/ 

13            •§ 

^ 

Friction 

Load> 

ioN* 

I 

I 

j 

•3 

a 

9 

/ 

6 

^ 

80#  of  work  > 

-\  1 

^SJ 
i 

S 

48 


60 


10  12       18        24  36 

Work  Diameter 

FIG.    22.      RELATION    BETWEEN    MAXIMUM    HORSE   POWER   AND 
WORK    DIAMETER    OF    60-INCH    LATHE. 

On  small  work,  such  as  would  be  handled 
by  this  lathe,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  oppor- 
tunity for  as  heavy  roughing  cuts,  and  cast- 
ings over  48  inches  in  diameter  cannot  be 
swung  over  the  carriage,  nor  would  it  be  good 
policy  to  aim  at  high  efficiency  at  this  point 
for  the  additional  cost  would  not  be  justified 
by  the  saving  effected  on  such  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  total  output. 


206 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


As  the  horse  power  between  the  working 
limits  shown  above  was  figured  for  the  max- 
imum cutting  speed  of  60  feet  per  minute,  we 
can  plot  a  relation  between  revolutions  per 
minute  and  horse  power.  (See  Figure  23.) 
The  selection  of  electrical  equipment  for  this 
lathe  will  be  taken  up  further  on. 


13 

•8,- 

/ 

"- 

*  

.P.Reauir 
£ 

7.5 

6 
JS 

~00 

S 
£ 
•« 

^N 

^ 

2*^ 

50 

H    o 

1  60  ft.on 

80  ft.on  18 

10  20  30  40  50        56.7 

E.P.M.  Face  Plate 

FIG.   23.      RELATION   BETWEEN    HORSE    POWER  AND    R.P.M.    FOR 
60-INCH    LATHE. 

The  analysis  of  conditions  presented  above 
is,  as  was  stated,  essentially  a  problem  for 
the  machine  builders  to  work  out — in  other 
words,  the  electrical  companies  should  look 
to  them  for  specifications  covering  the  re- 
quirements to  be  met  by  their  motors  and 
controllers,  and  the  consulting  engineer 
should  expect  to  find  the  entire  problem  prop- 
erly solved  through  this  co-operation. 

We  will  now  depart  for  a  brief  period  from 
our  illustration  to  consider  the  electrical 


MACHINE  SHOPS  207 

phase  of  the  subject.    I  will  assume  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions  have  been  established : 

1.  Machines  of  present  design,  for  com- 
paratively  small  work,  requiring  constant- 
speed    drive,   should   in   most   instances   be 
grouped  and  operated  from  motor-driven  line 
shafts.    Specifications  for  new  machines  for 
such  duty  should  be  made  with  a  view  to  spe- 
cial requirements.     Indirect  savings  in  one 
plant  may  much  more  than  offset  additional 
cost  of  constant-speed  motor  on  each  machine, 
while  this  would  not  be  true  in  another. 

2.  For  group  driving,  both  direct  and  al- 
ternating-current motors  give  thoroughly  sat- 
isfactory results.    In  either  instance,  if  prop- 
erly installed,  repairs  should  not  be  an  im- 
portant feature.    In  certain  industries — tex- 
tile mills  for  example — the  induction  motor 
has  decided  advantages  on  account  of  close 
speed  regulation  with  varying  loads  and  les- 
sened fire  risk,  but  for  machine  shops  these 
features  are  unimportant. 

3.  Mechanical  means  of  speed  control,  in- 
cluding step  cone  pulley  and  variable-speed 
countershafts,  while  suited  for  many  cases, 
do  not  always  meet  the  requirements  of  ma- 
chine drive.     An  attempt  to  obtain  all  the 
necessary  speeds  by  gearing,  for  example, 


208  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

is  not  only  costly  (if  a  sufficient  number  of 
changes  are  provided)  but  inefficient  in  that, 
as  a  rule,  the  machinery  must  be  stopped  to 
change  from  one  speed  to  another,  and  can- 
not be  controlled  from  an  independent  point. 

4.  For  adjustable-speed  work,  direct-cur- 
rent motors  of  some  one  of  the  field-weaken- 
ing types  are  now  used  almost  exclusively.    It 
is  hardly  practicable  to  secure  by  this  means 
a  range  greater  than  6  to  1,  while  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  most  economical  results 
$re  attained  by  not  exceeding  3  to  1.     In 
other  words,   it   is   necessary,   in   most   in- 
stances, to  resort  to  a  combination  of  me- 
chanical and  electrical  control,  the  disadvant- 
ages of  each  method  being  largely  eliminated 
by  this  means.    For  example,  even  where  ma- 
chines are  handling  a  very  general  line  of 
work  the  greater  part  of  it  will  be  covered  by 
a  range  of  3  to  1,  so  that  if  this  amount  is 
obtained  electrically  gear  changes  will  be  sel- 
dom necessary,  and  at  the  same  time  a  com- 
paratively inexpensive  motor  may  be  used. 

5.  Long  transmission  lines  may  make  al- 
ternating-current desirable,  and  for  certain 
extended  plants  the  best  results  can  be  ob- 
tained by  its  use,  together  with  motor  gen- 
erator or  rotary  converter  for  direct-current 


MACHINE  SHOPS 


209 


variable-speed  motors.  If,  however,  but  one 
kind  of  current  will  be  available,  decision 
should  be  largely  governed  by  the  number  of 
individual  adjustable-speed  drives  required. 
In  many  instances,  while  group  drives  may 
be  desirable  at  the  start,  new  equipment 
should  be  purchased  with  individual  motors 
for  the  sake  of  adjustable  speed  and  ease  of 
control. 


56.7 


£ 


lat 
8 


^24 

3 


l  s 

i    g 


--  -Triple  geara  --- 


-i 

Jack  geaj-a— fl-l- 


-Spindle  ---  > 


16.2 


14.1 


4.02 


|-  Gear  ra 


o  4.02  to  1 


Speed  Notches 
SPINDLE    SPEED   FOB   60-INCH    LATHE. 


FIG.    24. 

Ee turning  to  the  60-inch  lathe  considered 
above,  the  total  speed  range  of  57  to  1  can 
be  covered  by  the  usual  triple-gear  arrange- 


210  INDUSTRIAL 

ment,  with  the  resulting  ratios  shown  on  the 
chart,  Figure  24,  the  range  in  motor  speed 
being  3.5  to  1. 

During  the  period  of  development  of  the 
direct-current  adjustable-speed  motor  and 
when  machine  tools  were  being  redesigned 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  high-speed 
steels  and  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  ad- 
vancement of  the  motor  drive,  this  subject 
was  seriously  complicated  on  account  of  the 
special  character  and  numerous  types  of 
motor-drive  equipments  that  were  advocated. 
Fortunately,  however,  this  stage  has  been 
passed,  as  the  comparatively  simple  condi- 
tions just  outlined  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
alternating  and  direct  current  and  the  means 
of  securing  constant  and  adjustable-speed 
drives  have  been  generally  accepted.  Conse- 
quently, the  leading  machine-tool  builders  are 
now  manufacturing  a  considerable  part  of 
their  product  in  accordance  with  established 
standards  and  complete  in  every  particular 
including  the  motor  equipment.  When  the 
conditions  call  for  adjustable  speed  the  di- 
rect-current motor  of  the  field-weakening 
type  operating  on  approximately  230  volts  is 
used,  and  such  equipment  seldom  requires 
any  special  provision  upon  the  part  of  the 


MACHINE  SHOPS 

purchaser,  as  direct  current  at  230  volts  has 
been  generally  adopted  by  establishments 
using  the  character  of  machine-tool  equip- 
ment in  question.  No  doubt  special  condi- 
tions will  arise  from  time  to  time  which  can 
be  most  efficiently  met  through  the  adoption 
of  a  three-  or  four-wire  voltage  system,  but 
this  will  only  be  in  special  cases. 

This  discussion  could  be  logically  extended 
to  include  the  mechanical  and  electrical  char- 
acteristics of  different  types  and  makes  of 
motors,  controllers,  and  auxiliary  apparatus, 
but  as  I  believe  that  I  have  gone  into  the  sub- 
ject sufficiently  to  exemplify  that  kind  of  de- 
tailed specific  knowledge  which,  in  the  final 
analysis,  governs  the  character  and  extent  of 
industrial  plants,  I  will  not  take  up  this  phase 
of  the  machine-shop  problem. 

If  the  lathe  which  we  have  chosen  as  our 
illustration  were  equipped  with  a  field- weak- 
ening interpole  adjustable-speed  motor,  the 
relation  between  motor  horse  power  and  that 
required  by  the  machine  in  order  to  fulfil  the 
conditions  satisfactorily,  would  be  approxi- 
mately as  shown  in  Figure  25.  This  curve  is 
based  upon  the  use  of  a  motor  weighing  1,615 
pounds  and  which  will  deliver  10  horse  power 
between  a  range  of  350  r.  p.  m.  and  1,050 


212  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

r.  p.  m.,  or  a  motor  weighing  2,300  pounds, 
which  will  deliver  10  horse  power  between  225 
r.  p.  m.  and  900  r.  p.  m.  Either  motor  would 
prove  satisfactory,  although  the  larger  one 
would  assure  more  satisfactory  commutation. 
It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  engineer  who  is 
engaged  upon  the  laying  out  of  a  large  ma- 
chine shop  to  base  his  conclusions  alone  upon 
the  technical  considerations  which  have  just 
been  presented.  These  should  guide  him  in 
part  in  connection  with  the  selection  of  the 
types  and  sizes  of  equipment,  but  these  mat- 
ters as  well  as  the  amount  and  arrangement 
of  the  equipment  must  be  governed  in  the 
final  analysis  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
plant  is  to  be  administered.  When  the  char- 
acter of  work  can  be  performed  by  full  auto- 
matic machines,  the  problem  is  of  course 
greatly  simplified  as  the  design  of  such  ma- 
chines predetermines  the  output  to  an  ex- 
tent that  is  not  true  of  non-automatic  ma- 
chines. In  other  words,  the  results  of  re- 
peated tests  conducted  by  the  builders  of  the 
former  class  of  equipment  are  to  some  extent 
made  available  automatically  to  the  users  of 
such  equipment.  The  maximum  efficiency  of 
machines  which  are  not  automatic  and  are 
designed  for  a  considerable  range  of  work 


MACHINE  SHOPS 


213 


can  be  secured  only  through  the  use  of  spe- 
cific instructions  concerning  every  detail  in 
regard  to  the  manner  of  performing  the  work, 
and  such  instructions  can  only  be  prepared 
after  the  accumulation  of  a  vast  amount  of 
data  based  upon  exhaustive  "time  study." 


Triple  gear 


e  10 12 14.1 

•4.U2  16 


20  30  40  50       56.7 

R.P.M.Face  Plate 

FIG.  25.      DATA  RELATING   TO  SINGLE-VOLTAGE  FIELD-WEAKEN- 
ING   MOTOR    EQUIPMENT. 

Much  has  been  done,  however,  toward  making 
a  considerable  part  of  such  information  avail- 
able to  all,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  slide  rules 
which  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Carl  G.  Barth, 
and  the  work  of  others  who  have  specialized 
on  this  subject.  These  slide  rules  enable  the 
ready  determination  of  the  proper  cutting 
speeds  and  feeds  for  the  performance  of  cer- 
tain definite  operations  upon  given  materials 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  predetermined 
machines  equipped  with  standard  tools.  The 
time  required  for  the  completion  of  each  ma- 


214  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

chining  operation,  when  conducted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  plans  just  referred  to,  is  also 
accurately  predetermined  by  means  of  these 
slide  rules,  but  of  course  their  use  is  pre- 
dicated upon  the  establishment  of  standards 
in  connection  with  all  the  factors  involved. 
So  here  we  find  a  precise  method  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  equipment  of  a  given 
character  that  will  be  necessary  in  order  to 
turn  out  a  certain  amount  of  work  within  a 
given  time  under  the  most  efficient  conditions 
of  equipment  and  administration. 

The  manufacture  of  a  product  consists, 
however,  in  the  performance  of  a  great  varie- 
ty of  operations,  and  in  this  connection  it  is 
also  necessary  to  resort  to  "time  study "  in 
order  to  gain  complete  knowledge  concerning 
all  collateral  operations,  such  as  the  handling 
of  materials,  the  proper  sequence  in  which 
operations  should  be  conducted,  and  so  on. 
The  time  consumed  in  getting  ready  for  the 
performance  of  certain  work,  as  well  as  the 
time  required  to  move  the  product  from  ma- 
chine to  machine,  and  also  the  performance 
of  work  in  connection  with  which  machine- 
tool  equipment  plays  a  minor  part  or  is  not 
used  at  all  (such  as  the  assembling  of  parts), 
is  in  all  cases  a  very  important  factor,  often 


MACHINE  SHOPS  215 

amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  more  than  the 
total  time  consumed  for  the  actual  machining 
work.  It  is  on  this  account  that  the  old  prac- 
tice of  each  machinist  personally  securing 
from  the  tool  room  the  tools  and  other  aux- 
iliary equipment,  that  in  his  judgment  are 
needed,  is  rapidly  giving  way  to  the  system 
of  providing  in  advance,  for  each  operator, 
all  the  tools  and  other  parts  that  are  required 
to  consummate  the  work  in  a  predetermined 
manner.  The  advantage  of  this  method  is 
so  great  that  to  some  extent  at  least  it  is 
being  followed  in  almost  all  large  shops,  even 
though  standard  instructions  for  performing 
the  work  are  not  given  to  the  workmen  or  in 
fact  may  not  be  a  matter  of  record. 

This  is  a  phase  of  the  subject  which  must 
be  most  carefully  considered  when  rearrang- 
ing an  existing  shop  or  planning  a  new  one, 
for  the  degrees  of  proficiency  which  have 
been  attained  by  different  companies  in  the 
administration  of  work  vary  widely.  Con- 
sequently, the  industrial  engineer  must  base 
his  work  upon  conditions  as  to  administration 
which  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  will  be  ful- 
filled. 

I  have  referred  to  scientific  management, 
principally  insofar  as  it  provides  the  condi- 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

tions  of  maximum  efficiency  as  represented 
by  the  physical  features  of  machine  shops. 
However,  an  equally  important  function  of 
scientific  management  is  the  training  of  indi- 
vidual operators  in  order  that  their  efficiency 
may  be  brought  up  to  what  has  been  prede- 
termined as  a  proper  performance.  It  is  one 
thing  to  lay  out  and  design  a  machine  shop 
in  which  the  work  will  be  performed  by  oper- 
ators so  trained,  and  a  totally  different  thing 
to  lay  out  a  machine  shop  in  which  the  work 
will  be  conducted  by  machinists  who  will  be 
accorded  every  facility  insofar  as  the  equip- 
ment itself  is  concerned,  but  who  have  not 
had  the  advantage  of  this  kind  of  training. 
Obviously  this  training  must  have  as  its  ob- 
ject the  accomplishment  of  a  predetermined 
result,  and  this  result  can  represent  a  high 
standard  only  if  the  work  is  conducted  in  ac- 
cordance with  certain  fundamental  principles 
of  administration  which  experience  has 
proved  to  be  correct.  It  must  ever  be  borne 
in  mind  by  those  who  wish  to  obtain  a  posi- 
tion of  proficiency  in  regard  to  the  laying  out 
of  industrial  plants,  that  the  problems  of 
equipment  and  administration  must  be  con- 
sidered jointly.  The  correct  solution  of 
either  one  of  these  factors  is  quite  impossible 


MACHINE   SHOPS  217 

without  a  full  recognition  of  the  conditions 
governing-  the  other. 

The  readers  of  Mr.  H.  L.  Gantt's  book  en- 
titled "Work,  Wages  and  Profits "  will  ap- 
preciate, I  am  sure,  the  bearing  that  scientific 
management  has  upon  the  work  of  planning 
and  designing  machine  shops  or  other  indus- 
trial plants. 


CHAPTER    X 
MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

'~psHE  preceding  chapters  have  dealt  with 
the  "method  of  procedure "  that 
should  be  followed  when  planning  and  de- 
signing industrial  plants.  Attention  has 
been  directed  especially  to  the  physical  re- 
quirements which  are  common  to  the  efficient 
operation  of  all  plants  (irrespective  of  their 
output)  and  it  has  been  shown  that  these  re- 
quirements can  be  properly  solved  for  all 
cases  only  by  those  who  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  that 
pertain  to  every  industrial  activity.  This 
treatment  of  the  subject  was  so  broad  as  to 
preclude  the  opportunity  of  direct  reference 
to  the  characteristics  of  individual  plants. 
Subsequent  articles  considered  the  more  spe- 
cial necessities  of  that  group  of  industries  in 
which  the  working  of  metal  predominates, 
and  in  this  instance  different  types  of  build- 
ings were  illustrated,  but  described  only  in- 
218 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  219 

sofar  as  they  were  characteristic  of  types, 
without  reference  to  their  individual  pecu- 
liarities. 

I  have  not  touched  upon  the  innumerable 
methods,  processes,  and  procedures  that  are 
special  for  given  industries,  except  as  cov- 
ered by  the  chapters  relating  to  the  metal 
trades  and  a  brief  allusion  to  the  hat  indus- 
try. It  is  obvious,  however,  that  it  is  im- 
perative when  planning  a  workshop  to  have 
not  only  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  detail 
processes  that  will  be  performed,  but  also  a 
vast  amount  of  data  relating. to  the  proposed 
business  policy  of  the  management.  This 
phase  of  the  entire  subject  comprises  the 
whole  range  of  industrial  handicraft  and 
business  policy. 

The  only  way  that  an  adequate  idea  can  be 
imparted  of  the  inter-relationships  and  far- 
reaching  influences  of  all  the  factors  in- 
volved, would  be  to  describe  in  full  detail  the 
course  of  reasoning  followed  when  working 
up  some  one  complex  layout ;  but  space  is  in- 
adequate to  give  even  a  complete  exposition 
of  the  aims,  purposes,  and  methods  of  a  sin- 
gle business,  to  say  nothing  of  the  uses  made 
of  such  knowledge  as  a  primary  basis  for 
the  planning  and  designing  work.  However, 


220 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  221 

it  would  seem  fitting*,  as  a  separate  chapter 
in  this  volume,  to  discuss  briefly  a  number  of 
modern  industrial  plants  which  have  been 
laid  out  substantially  in  accordance  with  the 
methods  advocated.  Even  if  the  whole  story 
cannot  be  told,  attention  can  at  least  be  di- 
rected to  the  more  interesting  features  that 
they  possess,  and  in  this  way  I  hope  to  em- 
phasize the  real  significance  of  certain  of 
the  matters  contained  in  the  earlier  publi- 
cations. With  this  explanation  (which  I 
hope  will  prepare  the  reader  merely  for  the 
presentation  of  the  various  points  of  con- 
siderable interest  presented  by  the  plants 
herein  illustrated,  rather  than  a  logical  re- 
cital of  the  manner  in  which  the  results  were 
brought  about),  we  will  proceed  with  the 
first  example,  which  is  the  large  plant  of  the 
Wagner  Electric  Manufacturing  Company, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  builders  and  manufacturers 
of  a  wide  variety  of  electrical  apparatus. 

Figure  26  shows  in  perspective  the  ex- 
terior appearance  of  the  ultimate  develop- 
ment of  the  plant  that  was  finally  agreed 
upon  by  all  parties  engaged  upon  this  work. 
At  the  time  this  perspective  was  made  the 
property  was  held  under  option  only,  there 
being  no  structures  located  upon  it.  We 


222  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

need  not  dwell  upon  the  necessity  of  selecting 
a  new  site,  as  the  accommodations  occupied 
previous  to  the  construction  of  the  new  plant 
were  wholly  inadequate  for  the  volume  that 
the  business  had  already  attained,  leaving 
out  of  consideration  a  very  material  increase 
which  trade  conditions  made  immediately  im- 
perative. Further,  the  location  in  question 
was  only  one  of  a  number  that  were  taken 
under  consideration,  so  that  in  this  particu- 
lar (and  I  might  say  in  almost  every  other 
respect)  there  were  no  limitations  imposed 
that  interfered  with  a  correct  procedure  in 
connection  with  the  preliminary  service.  The 
perspective  drawing,  Figure  26,  is  of  the  ul- 
timate development,  and  so  illustrates  a 
plant  considerably  larger  than  the  one  pro- 
vided by  the  company  at  the  time  the  first 
construction  work  was  carried  out.  In  this 
regard  " factors"  representing  the  increase 
in  capacity  desired  immediately,  as  well  as 
those  representing  the  probable  increases 
that  would  be  required  from  time  to  time  up 
to  the  estimated  ultimate  development,  were 
carefully  figured  in  advance,  and  adhered  to 
throughout  the  work. 

The  more  important  divisions  of  the  pro- 
duct made  are  alternating-  and  direct-current 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  223 

motors  and  generators,  covering  practically 
the  entire  range  of  capacity  for  which  there 
is  demand,  transformers  of  all  sizes,  auxil- 
iary electrical  apparatus  such  as  starting  de- 
vices and  switchboards,  and  alternating-cur- 
rent  electrical    measuring   instruments.     A 
condition  of  the  work  was  that  the  growth  of 
the  business  would  entail  merely  a  greater 
output  in  connection  with  each  of  the  lines 
just  referred  to,   rather  than  the  probable 
addition    of    other    lines    of    manufacture. 
Therefore,  it  was  necessary  to  provide  for 
only  such  departments  as  already  existed,  at 
the  same  time  making  provision  for  the  nec- 
essary  expansion   in  these  departments   to 
meet  future  requirements.  The  brief  descrip- 
tion that  follows  gives  a  general  idea  of  the 
plan  of  manufacture. 

A  very  considerable  amount  of  cast  iron 
enters  into  the  product,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  foundry  is  provided  on  the  layout  that 
will  be  adequate  for  the  complete  develop- 
ment. The  raw  material  for  this  foundry  is 
delivered  on  the  siding  that  passes  to  the 
rear  of  the  property  as  observed  from  the 
point  of  view  assumed  by  the  perspective 
drawing.  After  the  castings  are  made  in 
foundry  "F"  they  are  transported  directly 


224  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

across  an  open  way  to  building  "S,"  which 
is  the  raw-material  store  house,  extending 
across  the  rear  ends  and  communicating  with 
all  the  manufacturing  and  assembling  build- 
ings. 

All  castings  used,  therefore,  must  go 
through  the  store  house  before  getting  into 
the  shops,  so  they  are  properly  checked  up 
and  recorded  on  the  balance  of  stores  record 
and,  if  not  needed  immediately,  they  remain 
in  this  department.  All  other  raw  materials 
are  received  on  the  siding  that  is  shown  en- 
tering the  property  at  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  Figure  26,  and  as  it  passes  directly 
alongside  of  the  stores  building  "S,"  the 
various  incoming  materials  can  be  unloaded 
and  carried  to  their  respective  bins,  racks, 
or  compartments,  with  the  entailment  of  a 
minimum  expense.  This  stores  building  is  a 
two-story  structure,  the  first  floor  being  on 
the  same  level  as  the  floors  of  the  main  shops, 
and  the  second  floor  on  the  same  level  and 
communicating  with  the  galleries  of  the  main 
shops,  which  are  shown  in  the  interior  view 
of  building  "M-l"  (Figure  27).  In  each 
case  the  raw  product  is  stored  as  conven- 
iently as  is  possible  with  regard  to  the  build- 
ing to  which  it  must  ultimately  be  delivered 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES 


225 


for  the  performance  of  the  first  manufactur- 
ing operations. 

As  the  manufacture  of  sheet-metal  lamina- 
tions is  a  function  that  is  common  to  alter- 
nating-current motors,  generators,  and  trans- 
formers, Building  "P,"  known  as  the  "  punch 


FIG.  27.      INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  ONE  OF  THE   MAIN   SHOPS   OF  THE 
WAGNER     ELECTRIC     MANUFACTURING     COMPANY. 

department,"  was  provided  for  this  purpose. 
Directly  adjoining  this  department  and  ex- 
tending into  the  area  way  between  Buildings 
"P"  and  "M-l"  is  located  the  annealing  de- 
partment, the  floor  level  of  which  is  11  feet 
6  inches  below  the  first-floor  grade  of  the 


226 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


main  shops.  The  purpose  of  this  arrange- 
ment will  be  better  understood  by  referring 
to  Figure  28,  which  is  an  interior  view  of  a 
tunnel,  extending  directly  across  the  plant, 
perpendicular  to  buildings  "T,"  "P," 
"M-l,"  etc.,  and  located  about  midway  be- 
tween buildings  "S"  and  "E." 


FIG.    28.       TUNNEL    TRA^?ERSING    PROPERTY    OF    WAGNER    ELEC- 
TRIC    MANUFACTURING     COMPANY. 

After  the  laminations  have  been  pressed 
out  they  are  lowered  on  an  elevator  to  the 
annealing  department,  which  is  on  the  same 
level  as  the  tunnel  floor.  If  the  annealed 
laminations  are  intended  for  the  transformer 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  227 

shop,  building  "T,"  they  are  wheeled 
through  the  tunnel  to  the  elevator  communi- 
cating with  this  building,  and  in  the  same 
manner  access  is  had  to  buildings  "M-l," 
"M-2"  and  "M-3"  without  the  necessity  of 
going  out  of  doors  or  in  any  way  interfer- 
ing with  other  work,  which  would  be  the  case 
if  loaded  trucks  were  being  pushed  constant- 
ly through  the  various  shops. 

Motors  and  generators  of  various  sizes  are 
now  made  in  building  "M-l";  the  gallery 
floors  and  certain  sections  of  the  main  floor 
being  used  for  manufacturing  work,  the  ma- 
chining of  large  parts,  winding,  etc.,  and  the 
balance  of  the  floor  space  for  erection  and 
testing  purposes.  Building  "M-2"  will  be 
used  for  essentially  the  same  class  of  work, 
and  building  "E"  for  the  erection  of  the 
largest  types  of  machines  that  are  built. 
Building  "M-3"  was  provided  in  the  layout 
to  take  care  of  the  work  on  parts  and  group 
assembling  for  the  largest  product  that  the 
company  is  likely  to  turn  out,  and  owing  to 
the  uncertainty  of  its  character  no  attempt 
was  made  to  apportion  its  space  or  to  de- 
termine finally  upon  the  characteristics  of 
the  building.  Building  "J"  was  provided 
for  the  manufacture  of  electrical  instru- 


228  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

ments;  building  "K"  is  the  main  office; 
building  "L"  the  service  building  for  em- 
ployees, and  "W"  a  warehouse  for  finished 
product. 

The  work  performed  in  this  plant  can  be 
divided  roughly  between  the  first  two  of  the 
three  broad  classes  of  metal  working  dis- 
cussed in  a  previous  article.  The  instrument 
work  should  be  classified  under  the  first  di- 
vision, as  it  is  strictly  a  manufacturing  pro- 
position. The  building  of  large  motors  and 
generators  comes  under  the  second  division, 
as  it  comprises  a  definite  line  of  compara- 
tively heavy  machinery.  Cross  sections  of 
buildings  "T"  and  "M-l"  were  included  in 
the  article  in  question  as  illustrating  the  spe- 
cial character  of  buildings  designed  for  heavy 
work.  It  is  only  necessary  to  glance  at  Fig- 
ure 27,  which  is  an  interior  view  of  building 
"M-l,"  to  see  that  the  character  and  dimen- 
sions of  this  shop  have  been  governed  in 
practically  every  detail  by  the  requirements 
of  the  work  to  be  performed  in  it,  and  that  in 
many  particulars  the  structure  of  the  build- 
ing forms  the  function  of  equipment.  This 
is  true  not  only  in  connection  with  the  crane 
runways,  the  supports  for  overhead  mono- 
rails, and  the  provisions  for  elevators,  but 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  229 

also  in  connection  with  certain  features  of 
the  equipment  proper. 

The  layout  that  we  are  considering  is  char- 
acterized by  a  series  of  shops  arranged  par- 
allel to  one  another,  and  connected  at  one 
end  by  a  raw-materials  storage  building,  and 
at  the  other  end  by  an  erection  shop,  except 
in  the  cases  of  the  transformer  department, 
from  which  finished  transformers  are 
shipped  direct,  and  the  punch  department, 
which  serves  the  machine  shops  but  not  the 
erection  department.  Flexibility  is  secured 
through  the  possibility  of  erecting  additional 
shops  paralleling  those  first  erected  and  at 
the  same  time  extending  the  stores  and  erec- 
tion departments,  so  making  the  additional 
units  an  integral  part  of  the  plant  as  a  whole 
until  such  time  as  the  full  development,  as  il- 
lustrated by  Figure  26,  is  attained.  This  gen- 
eral scheme  is  by  no  means  new,  having  been 
resorted  to  frequently  before  the  Wagner 
plant  was  built,  one  of  the  best  known  illus- 
trations being  the  plant  of  the  Allis-Chalmers 
Company  at  Milwaukee. 

Provision  was  made  to  segregate  all  the 
foundry  workers  from  the  employees  of  the 
other  departments,  a  condition  which  is  in 
many  cases  desirable  in  order  to  gain  an  ade- 


230 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


quate  control  of  the 
labor  situation.     The 
employees  of  all  de- 
partments other  than 
the     foundry     enter 
the  plant  through  the 
service  building  "  L, " 
where  they  dress  for 
their     work     before 
going  to  their  respec- 
tive        departments. 
The     time    of    com- 
mencing work,   how- 
ever, is  in  each  case 
g  recorded   in   the    de- 
«  partments      where 
3  they    are    employed, 
condition  which  is 
of    considerable    im- 
portance in  all  large 
plants.  Separate 

service  facilities  and 
entrance  and  exit  to 
the  property  are  pro- 
vided for  the  foun- 
dry operatives. 

Figure  29,  which  is 
a  photograph  of  the 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  231 

plant  immediately  after  the  completion  of 
the  first  stage  of  construction,  shows  clearly 
the  manner  in  which  the  necessities  of  the 
company  as  existing  at  that  time  were  pro- 
vided for.  Buildings  "Y,"  "P,"  "S,"  and 
"N"  were  erected  in  part  only,  but  buildings 
"M-l,"  "K"  and  "L"  were  built  as  shown 
on  the  ultimate  development.  The  tempo- 
rary ends  of  buildings  "T"  and  "P"  ap- 
pear in  the  foreground.  Construction  of  the 
instrument  building  "J"  was  deferred,  this 
work  being  efficiently  provided  for  upon  the 
second  floor  of  building  "P."  It  was  purely 
special  conditions,  arising  principally 
through  the  difficulty  of  acquiring  certain 
property,  which  resulted  in  the  location  of 
the  power  plant,  building  "N,"  upon  a  sep- 
arate plot,  but  when  the  necessity  for  doing 
this  arose,  it  was  found  that  no  serious  ob- 
jections were  presented  from  the  standpoint 
of  power  generation  and  distribution, 
whereas  it  appeared  that  the  future  would 
probably  develop  the  need  of  the  property 
adjoining  the  power  plant  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  multiple-story  factory. ' 

A  very  important  consideration  that  al- 
ways confronts  the  industrial  engineer  is 
the  character  of  buildings  that  should  be 


232  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

adopted  for  different  businesses.  There  are 
usually  certain  limits  of  expenditure  that  are 
possible,  the  lowest  of  which  must  at  least 
allow  of  the  reasonably  efficient  performance 
of  the  industrial  work,  whatever  it  may  be, 
whereas  the  upper  limit  represents  an  ex- 
penditure that  meets  not  only  the  shop  re- 
quirements proper  but  those  incident  to  the  • 
provision  of  buildings  of  a  thoroughly  per- 
manent character  and  attractive  appearance, 
incorporating  also  all  the  refinements  in  fur- 
nishings and  appliances  that  form  a  con- 
sistent part  of  such  structures.  The  very 
nature  of  some  businesses  is  such  that  they 
should  not  be  handicapped  by  the  interest 
charges  that  would  follow  the  adoption  of 
recommendations  based  upon  what  I  have 
termed  the  upper  limit  of  expenditures ;  and 
in  other  cases,  aside  from  the  utility  that  the 
greater  disbursement  may  represent,  it  is  im- 
practicable to  secure  the  necessary  funds. 

The  new  plant  of  the  Orenstein-Arthur 
Koppel  Company,  built  a  few  years  ago  at 
Koppel,  Pennsylvania,  and  recently  enlarged 
in  capacity,  is  a  good  illustration  of  an  in- 
stance where  every  dollar  that  was  spent 
went  for  some  positive  utility.  The  plan  of 
ultimate  development  of  their  property  is  il- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES 


233 


lustrated  by  Figure  30,  and  Figures  31  and 
32  are  photographs  showing  the  plan  as  a 
whole,  prior  to  its  enlargement,  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  erection  shop,  respectively. 


Traveling  Crane 


C-2 


Standard  Gauge  Tracks 


Block  Plan 

Present  and  Proposed  Plant 
of  Orenstein-Arthur  Koppel  Co. 

Standard  Gauge  Tracks 


Street 


Ttie  Engineering  Magazine\ \ 

FIG.     30.         PLAN     OF     PROPERTY,     ORENSTEIN-ARTHUR     KOPPEL 
COMPANY. 

This  company  manufactures  high-grade 
contractors J  equipment,  including  principally 
dump  cars  of  all  kinds  and  industrial-track 
systems.  The  labor  cost  per  pound  upon  this 
product  is  very  low,  so  it  is  absolutely  im- 
perative that  the  cost  should  be  burdened 
with  a  minimum  overhead  expense;  for  in 
any  case  it  will  be  a  considerable  part  of  the 
total  cost,  and  unless  this  condition  of  min- 


234: 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN     EXAMPLES  235 

imization  were  complied  with  the  company 
would  occupy  a  vulnerable  position.  It  was 
on  this  account  that  practically  everything 
was  made  subservient  to  utility  insofar  as 
this  course  was  reasonable  when  designing 
and  building  the  plant  of  Orenstein-Arthur 
Koppel  Company. 

Buildings  "C-l,"  "C-2,"  "F,"  "M"  and 
"E"  form  a  complete  group  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  entire  range  in  capacities  of 
industrial  cars  of  many  different  types.  The 
raw  materials,  which  comprise  principally 
sheet  steel  and  structural  shapes,  are  re- 
ceived on  the  siding  passing  between  build- 
ing "P"  and  the  property  line  and  are  un- 
loaded by  means  of  a  gantry  crane  and  car- 
ried by  this  crane  to  the  proper  section  of 
the  storage  yard.  Building  "C-l"  is  known 
as  the  light  car  shop  and  building  "0-2"  as 
the  heavy  car  shop ;  the  structural  and  sheet- 
metal  work  as  well  as  certain  preliminary 
assembling  operations  being  performed  in 
these  departments  upon  the  respective  divi- 
sions of  the  product.  These  shops  are  served 
by  cranes  that  operate  lengthwise  of  the 
buildings  and  on  either  side  of  the  central 
row  of  columns. 

Building   "F"  is  the  forge   shop,   which 


236  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

serves  about  equally  the  light  and  heavy  car 
work,  and  building  "  M  "  is  the  machine  shop 
which  serves  buildings  "C-l,"  "C-2,"  and 
"E,"  the  latter  being  the  erection  shop,  an 
interior  view  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  32. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement  of  de- 
partments reduces  the  handling  of  material 
to  a  minimum,  a  condition  which  also  makes 
for  the  most  ready  supervision  of  the  work. 
There  is  no  dividing  wall  between  "M"  and 
"E,"  and  by  locating  the  tool  room  in  build- 
ing "M"  directly  adjoining  the  erection  de- 
partment, as  shown  in  Figure  32,  it  is  made 
most  accessible  to  all  the  departments  it 
serves.  Building  "E"  was  provided  for  the 
frog  and  switch  work,  building  "S"  for  the 
storage  of  miscellaneous  raw  materials,  and 
an  office  building,  "K,"  was  provided  which 
does  not  show  in  the  photographs. 

The  first  construction  work  that  was  car- 
ried out  by  this  company  included  the  erec- 
tion of  the  buildings  which  are  cross-hatched 
on  Figure  30.  However,  the  plant  has  been 
extended  since  that  time.  All  the  equip- 
ment is  motor-driven  through  the  medium  of 
either  the  direct  or  group  method.  The 
power  plant,  building  "P,"  contains  direct- 
connected  generators  delivering  to  the  vari- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES 


237 


ous  departments  direct  current  at  220  volts, 
a  three-wire  system  being  used  for  the  light- 
ing. Wherever  the  requirements  made  it  de- 
sirable, adjustable  speed  motors  were  in- 
stalled. 


FIG. 


INTERIOR       IJUILDING        "E," 
KOPPEL    COMPANY. 


ORKN  STEIN-ARTHUR 


The  interior  view  of  the  erection  shop, 
Figure  32,  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  type 
of  building  construction  that  was  used 
throughout  the  plant.  The  crane  runways 
are  supported  on  a  steel  frame  which  carries 
the  roof.  The  cost  of  the  side  walls  was 
minimized  and  at  the  same  time  admirable 


238  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

natural  lighting  procured  through  the  use  of 
a  concrete  base  course  extending  from  the 
footing  up  to  a  point  6  feet  above  the  floors, 
and  above  this  base  course,  extending  from 
column  to  column,  are  the  window  frames, 
designed  for  balanced  sash  in  the  lower  sec- 
tions. In  the  case  of  the  erection  shop  an 
additional  row  of  tilting  sash  was  installed 
above  the  crane  runway.  This  type  of  con- 
struction eliminates  entirely  the  usual  pilas- 
ters between  the  window  frames.  The  floors 
of  the  various  shops  are  composed  of  6  inches 
of  bituminous  concrete  upon  which  is  laid  a 
3-inch  under  floor  covered  with  %-inch  fac- 
tory-grade maple.  The  roof  is  composed  of 
heavy  plank  laid  on  steel  purlins  and  cov- 
ered with  a  form  of  flexible  roofing  material. 
The  greater  part  of  the  finished  product 
is  stored  prior  to  shipment  in  the  yard  di- 
rectly in  front  of  building  "E"  and  a  loco- 
motive crane  is  used  for  handling  it.  A  fin- 
ished-product warehouse  building  "W  is 
also  shown  on  the  layout.  The  conclusion 
that  one  invariably  reaches  upon  visiting  this 
plant  is  that  money  has  not  been  skimped  in 
any  particular  that  makes  for  economy  of 
operation,  whereas  not  a  dollar  has  been 
spent  for  the  sake  of  appearance  alone. 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  239 

While  this  policy  was  undoubtedly  the  cor- 
rect one  to  pursue  in  this  case,  it  would  of 
course  be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  re- 
quirements of  many  other  businesses. 

The  plants  of  the  Wagner  Electric  Manu- 
facturing Company  and  the  Orenstein- 
Arthur  Koppel  Company  are  composed  of  a 
series  of  independent  shops  that  adjoin  and 
communicate  with  an  erection  shop.  As  has 
been  previously  stated,  this  type  of  layout 
has  been  adopted  quite  frequently  for  certain 
lines  of  work.  The  plant  which  we  are  now 
about  to  consider  is  another  well  defined 
type,  characterized  by  the  condition  that  all 
the  floor  space  needed  is  enclosed  under  a 
single  room.  This  procedure  is  made  possi- 
ble through  the  adoption  of  the  saw-tooth 
roof,  which  eliminates  the  frequent  necessity 
of  providing  areaways  between  separate 
buildings  when  roof  lighting  is  not  avail- 
able. Of  course  the  saw  tooth  type  of  con- 
struction, when  it  is  adopted  in  the  manner 
that  is  now  under  consideration,  necessitates 
the  use  of  a  ground  floor  only. 

The  plant  of  the  Cincinnati  Bickford  Tool 
Company,  shown  in  perspective  in  Figure 
33,  has  been  selected  from  a  number  of 
plants  of  the  type  in  question  as  the  combina- 


240 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


tion  of  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  struc- 
tures makes  it  a  particularly  good  illustration 
of  the  manner  in  which  definite  industrial 
requirements  were  satisfied  and  future 
growth  provided  for. 


FIG.     33.       PLANT    OF    THE    CINCINNATI    BICKFORD    TOOL    COM- 
PANY,  OAKLEY,    OHIO. 

The  siding  for  the  receipt  and  shipment 
of  materials  is  shown  in  the  foreground.  The 
raw-materials  and  storage  department  is  at 
present  located  in  the  rear  of  buildings  "E" 
and  "M-l,'"  the  front  of  the  property  being 
paralled  by  the  main  line  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Bailroad,  which  does  not  show  in 
the  illustration.  Building  "  E ' '  was  designed 
primarily  to  accommodate  the  largest  ma- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  241 

chine-tool  equipment  operated  by  this  com- 
pany and  the  erection  of  radial  drill  presses, 
but  a  section  of  it  is  used  for  the  storage  of 
heavy  castings,  so  allowing  for  their  trans- 
portation by  means  of  the  overhead  travel- 
ing cranes  installed  in  this  building.  The 
section  of  the  saw-tooth  building  designated 
"M-l"  is  occupied  by  the  machine  depart- 
ment except  for  the  space  allotted  to  raw 
material.  The  section  of  this  building  indi- 
cated as  "M-2"  was  designed  primarily  to 
accommodate  the  department  for  the  erection 
of  upright  drill  presses  and  the  smallest  size 
of  radial  drill  presses,  but  certain  machine 
tools  are  also  located  in  this  area. 

Building  "W"  is  used  for  the  storage  of 
finished  product,  an  overhead  traveling  crane 
being  provided  for  the  handling  of  the  up- 
right and  radial  drill  presses  to  the  crating 
department  located  in  this  building,  and 
finally  for  loading  them  on  to  the  cars  that 
enter  the  plant  on  the  siding  shown  clearly 
in  Figure  33.  Department  "M-2"  is  equipped 
with  cranes  operating  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  building  "W,"  so  that  the  ma- 
chines that  are  assembled  in  this  department 
can  be  transferred  to  the  warehouse  with  a 
minimum  of  handling.  The  construction  of 


242  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

that  part  of  the  building  that  accommodates 
department  "M-l" — namely,  the  machine 
shop — differs  from  section  "M-2"  only  in 
that  the  headroom  is  14  feet  under  the  trusses 
whereas  in  the  latter  case  it  is  18  feet,  the 
greater  dimension  being  necessary  in  order 
to  accommodate  the  erection  work  that  has 
been  referred  to  previously.  Building  "K" 
is  a  two-story  office,  and  building  "L,"  which 
adjoins  the  office  and  the  warehouse,  accom- 
modates the  pattern  shop  on  the  second  floor 
and  a  service  department  for  the  employees 
on  the  first  floor.  The  second  floor  of  the 
office  building,  which  is  used  by  the  drafting 
department,  has  direct  communication  with 
the  pattern  shop. 

Figure  34  is  a  photograph  of  the  plant 
during  construction,  showing  the  structural 
steel  work  of  the  end  of  building  "W" 
and  the  side  of  building  "E."  Figure  35 
is  a  photograph  taken  from  the  rear  of  the 
property  looking  into  the  saw-teeth  of  de- 
partment "M-l"  and  showing  the  end  of  the 
erection  department  to  the  left.  Figure  36 
is  an  interior  view  of  the  machine  and  erect- 
ing departments. 

The  buildings  shown  to  the  left  of  the  main 
plant  (Figure  33)  were  constructed  with  a 


35.        NEW     PLANT     OF    THE    CINCINNATI     BICKFORD 
TOOL  COMPANY  DURING   CONSTRUCTION. 

243 


244 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


view  to  moving  or  taking  them  down  whon 
the  time  arrives  for  extending  the  plant  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  the  erection  shop. 
The  first  extension,  however,  will  be  made  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  warehouse 
by  adding  to  departments  "E"  and  "M-l." 


FIG.  36.     INTERIOR  OF    MACHINE  AND  ERECTING  DEPARTMENTS. 
CINCINNATI    BICKFORD   TOOL    COMPANY. 

When  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed in  a  metal- working  plant  is  such  as  to 
make  it  desirable  to  use  single-story  build- 
ings the  least  amount  of  real  estate  is  re- 
quired if  the  type  of  layout  is  adopted  that 
has  just  been  exemplified.  It  is  evident  that 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  245 

the  Cincinnati  Bickford  Tool  Company  will 
be  able  to  utilize  for  shop  purposes  nearly 
all  the  property  they  have  acquired  if  the 
growth  of  their  business  necessitates  it. 

Metal  frames  have  been  used  throughout 
all  the  manufacturing  buildings,  both  in  the 
side  walls  and  in  the  saw  teeth.  The  plant 
is  sprinkled  throughout  and  the  most  ap- 
provectyappliances  have  been  installed  in  con- 
nection with  sanitation,  etc.  A  hot-water 
system  of  heating  has  been  installed  and  the 
entire  plant  is  driven  electrically,  the  steam 
for  the  heating  and  the  electric  current  for 
light  and  power  being  furnished  by  the  cen- 
tral power  station  which  serves  the  colony  of 
machine-tool  builders  whose  plants  have  been 
erected  at  Oakley,  Ohio. 

In  order  to  appreciate  fully  the  advant- 
ages of  the  layout  that  has  just  been  des- 
cribed, it  is  necessary  to  have  not  only  a  de- 
tail knowledge  of  the  business  in  question 
but  of  the  series  of  alternate  arrangements 
or  layouts  for  the  new  plant  which  were  pre- 
pared prior  to  and  resulted  in  the  one  herein 
illustrated.  The  plant  of  the  Cincinnati 
Milling  Machine  Company,  adjoining  the  one 
just  described,  differs  from  it  only  insofar 
as  the  requirements  of  one  business  necessi- 


246  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

tate  a  somewhat  different  solution  from  the 
other. 

A  very  large  percentage  of  all  industrial 
plants  handle  a  product  that  is  characterized 
by  its  small  bulk  and  the  light  weight  of  its 
individual  units.  It  was  pointed  out  in  a 
previous  chapter  that  such  requirements  are, 
as  a  rule,  satisfactorily  cared  for  through 
housing  the  work  in  multiple-story  buildings, 
which  in  one  sense  may  be  considered  stand- 
ard in  their  principal  features,  as  they  are 
suitable  for  many  different  businesses  com- 
ing within  the  broad  class  in  question.  There- 
fore, insofar  as  the  buildings  proper  are 
concerned,  the  question  of  layout  is  not  a 
governing  one,  it  being  largely  a  matter  of 
providing  the  requisite  area.  Of  course  the 
arrangement  of  departments  and  the  group- 
ing of  equipment  is  a  very  vital  matter  to 
the  business  that  occupies  a  building  of  this 
character,  but  for  the  moment  we  will  not 
consider  this  phase  of  the  subject.  From  this 
standpoint  the  principal  matters  of  interest 
relate  to  features  that  make  for  the  desira- 
bility of  the  building  in  question,  irrespec- 
tive of  its  occupancy.  These  are  principally 
the  ones  of  fire-prevention  through  non-com- 
bustible styles  of  construction,  good  natural 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  247 

lighting  through  the  provision  of  a  maxi- 
mum window  area,  reduction  of  maintenance 
charges  through  the  utilization  of  materials 
that  will  undergo  the  minimum  depreciation, 
the  provision  of  the  most  approved  sanitary 
arrangements,  and  means  for  the  prompt 
exit  of  all  employees  in  the  event  of  fire,  ex- 
plosion, or  other  catastrophes.  These  re- 
quirements have  been  satisfied  with  varying 
degrees  of  thoroughness  by  those  who  have 
recently  constructed  multiple-story  manufac- 
turing buildings,  one  of  the  best  illustra- 
tions being  the  new  plant  just  completed  by 
the  American  Optical  Company  of  South- 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  for  the  manufacture 
of  spectacles  and  eyeglass  lenses.  This 
building  incorporates  all  the  features  which 
the  American  Optical  Company  have  found 
to  be  desirable  from  an  economic  standpoint 
after  having  given  this  subject  their  closest 
attention  for  many  years.  It  represents  the 
most  recent  attainment  resulting  from  a 
gradual  evolution  that  had  its  beginning  in 
a  small  frame  building  constructed  in  1839. 
Industrial  manufacturing  companies  rarely 
consider  the  subject  of  their  buildings  with 
anything  like  the  thoroughness  that  has  al- 
ways been  the  case  in  this  instance,  and  as 


•»' 

<    02 


5  w 

s  g 


248 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  249 


FIG.  37.     STAGES  IN  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  MANUFACTUR- 
ING PLANT  OF  THE  AMERICAN  OPTICAL 
COMPANY,  1839,  1872,  1882. 

the  procedure  adopted  at  each  important 
stage  in  the  development  was  thoroughly 
tried  out,  the  conclusions  that  have  been 
reached  are  particularly  significant.  On  this 
account  I  will  recite  briefly  the  principal  con- 
siderations that  brought  about  the  gradual 
change  in  policy,  which  in  the  first  instance 
sanctioned  frame  structures  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  dictates  the  use  of  wholly  fire-proof 


250  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

buildings  about  to  be  described.  The  pro- 
duct of  the  American  Optical  Company  com- 
prises spectacle  and  eyeglass  frames,  lenses 
and  cases  of  all  kinds  and  types,  and  in  addi- 
tion certain  other  allied  lines. 

The  status  of  the  subject  of  industrial 
buildings  in  the  year  1839,  coupled  with  the 
resources  of  those  who  commenced  at  that 
time  the  business  that  has  since  become  the 
American  Optical  Company,  left  but  one 
course  of  procedure  insofar  as  the  plant  was 
concerned;  namely,  the  erection  of  an  inex- 
pensive frame  structure.  The  business  grew 
gradually  in  the  beginning  and  prior  to  1872 
extensions  were  made  at  the  original  site. 
It  then  became  necessary  to  enlarge  the  plant 
still  further,  and  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
future  a  new  location  was  purchased  and  the 
buildings  constructed  that  are  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 37V  .dated  1872.  These  buildings  were  all 
"p"£ ."  frame  construction  throughout,  but  su- 
perior in  many  respects  to  the  earlier  build- 
ings. Between  1872  and  1882,  the  plant  was 
extended  until  it  had  reached  the  proportions 
shown  by  the  third  picture  in  Figure  37. 

Throughout  the, decade  immediately  prior 
to  1882  the  business  grew  with  very  great 
rapidity,  so  that  the  value  of  the  raw  mate- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  251 

rials,  finished  parts,  finished  product,  special 
machinery  and  tools  and  fixtures  housed  in 
the  plant,  had  reached  a  very  considerable 
figure  from  the  standpoint  of  invested  capi- 
tal alone ;  and  when  appraised  as  a  factor  in 
the  perpetuation  of  the  business,  its  value 
was,  of  course,  much  greater.  A  realization 
of  this  condition  emphasized  the  necessity  of 
making  all  reasonable  provisions  for  the  pre- 
vention or  isolation  of  fires,  and  definite  steps 
were  immediately  taken  toward  this  end. 
One  of  these  consisted  in  the  removal  in  1897 
of  all  hipped  roofs  with  their  slate  cover- 
ings and  their  replacement  by  flat  roofs  with 
felt  and  slag  coverings,  so  eliminating  the 
hazardous  attics  which  formerly  existed. 

These  buildings  were  also  modified  in  nu- 
merous respects  in  order  to  render  them  more 
adaptable  to  the  requirements  of  the  business 
which  the  company  was  constantly  defining 
with  greater  accuracy.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  1899  that  the  first  building  with  brick 
walls  was  constructed.  The  decision  to  adopt 
this  type,  known  generally  as  mill  construc- 
tion, was  based  upon  the  resulting  reduction 
in  fire  risk  and  maintenance  expense  and  the 
fact  that  the  problems  introduced  by  greater 
floor  loads  than  had  formerly  been  imposed 


252  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

could  be  very  satisfactorily  solved.  After 
one  of  the  old  frame  buildings  was  torn 
down  and  was  replaced  by  a  larger  one  of 
mill  construction  and  brick  walls,  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  new  structure  were  so  ap- 
parent that  it  was  decided  to  replace  all  of 
the  frame  buildings  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
In  this  connection  it  is  particularly  interest- 
ing to  note,  that  it  was  not  possible  to  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  through  modifying  from 
time  to  time  the  existing  buildings,  no  mat- 
ter how  radical  these  modifications  might  be. 
The  result  could  be  accomplished  only 
through  destruction  of  the  old  and  the  build- 
ing of  entirely  new  structures. 

Each  building  of  the  mill-construction 
type  that  was  erected  marked  an  advance  in 
many  particulars  over  those  previously 
erected.  For  example,  in  the  earlier  types 
the  heavy  girders  were  built  up  by  bolting 
together  a  number  of  timbers  of  the  requis- 
ite depth  but  of  such  a  width  that  in  the  ag- 
gregate they  gave  the  required  cross-section. 
The  spaces  between  these  timbers  presented 
a  very  considerable  fire  risk,  so  that  solid 
beams  were  substituted.  The  need  of  pro- 
viding the  best  possible  natural  lighting,  ow- 
ing to  the  character  of  work  performed,  re- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES 


FIG.   39.      VIEW  BETWEEN   THE    BUILDINGS,    AMERICAN    OPTICAL 
COMPANY. 

suited  in  the  adoption  of  larger  windows  in 
the  side  walls,  accomplished  through  making 
the  pilasters  narrower  and  carrying  the  win- 
dows as  close  to  the  ceiling  as  was  permitted 
through  the  use  of  a  brick  arch  carried  over 
the  window  head.  The  single  flooring  of  the 
earlier  types  was  soon  replaced  by  double 
flooring,  or  superseded  by  it  when  new  build- 
ings were  put  up.  Many  of  these  early  fea- 
tures of  construction  cannot  be  found  in  the 
present  plant  for  reasons  that  have  already 
been  given.  As  this  work  proceeded  the  plant 
was  constantly  approaching  the  appearance 


.^r>4  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

illustrated  by  Figure  38,  this  entire  plant 
having  been  constructed  in  eleven  years,  as 
has  also  a  plant,  located  but  a  short  distance 
from  the  main  buildings,  where  all  the  lens 
work  is  done. 

Before  the  plant  illustrated  by  Figure  38 
was  completed  the  company  adopted  brick 
and  steel  construction  in  place  of  brick  and 
timber.  By  so  doing  a  greater  window  area 
was  secured  through  making  the  pilasters 
narrower  than  before  (this  being  made  pos-. 
sible  because  the  brick  walls  in  this  case  are 
curtain  walls  and  not  bearing  walls)  and  by 
carrying  the  windows  up  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  ceilings,  accomplished  through  the 
very  ingenious  adaptation  of  a  Z-bar  lintel, 
one  leg  of  which  carries  the  brick  wall  and 
the  other  the  flooring,  which  consists  in  a 
4-inch  underplank,  1-inch  lining,  and  maple 
wearing  surface.  These  buildings  incorpor- 
ate the  most  approved  practice  in  regard  to 
fire  towers  and  full  equipment  for  the  com- 
batting of  fires.  Figures  40  and  41  illustrate 
the  old  and  new  types  of  window  construc- 
tion. 

During  1900  it  became  necessary  to  make 
separate  provision  for  the  lens  work,  which 
had  outgrown  the  accommodation^  available 


FIGS.    40,   41.       OLD   AND    NEW    TYPE    OF    WALL    AND    WINDOW 
CONSTRUCTION,      AMERICAN      OPTICAL     COMPANY. 

255 


256 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  257 


FIG.    43.       WINDOW    CONSTRUCTION,    NEW    LENS    FACTORY. 

at  the  main  plant  and  further  required  a 
special  type  of  building  for  its  efficient  per- 
formance. The  building  that  was  con- 
structed for  this  purpose  is  not  included 
among  the  illustrations  but  is  referred  to  as 


258  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

it  marks  a  departure  from  the  previous  prac- 
tice to  the -extent  that  a  concrete  floor  was 
used. 

The  building  most  recently  constructed 
(1910)  is  the  one  illustrated  in  Figure  42, 
being  the  new  lens-finishing  plant  which  was 
referred  to  previously  as  being,  one  of  the 
best  illustrations  of  modern  multiple-story 
building  construction.  Figure  43  is  a  near 
view  of  one  of  the  side  walls  and  shows  the 
stair  and  elevator  towers  which  also  accom- 
modate the  toilets.  Figure  44  is  a  photo- 
graph of  the  fourth  floor  before  any  paint- 
ing was  done,  and  shows  the  floor  construc- 
tion, the  extent  to  which  natural  lighting  has 
been  secured  through  side  windows,  and  the 
location  of  the  hot-water  pipes  for  heating. 
Figure  45  is  a  photograph  of  one  of  the  de- 
partments that  was  taken  before  it  was  fully 
equipped  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  interior  after  the  painting 
is  completed. 

The  adoption  of  reinforced-concrete  con- 
struction throughout,  metal  window  frames, 
a  sprinkler  system,  and  the  absence  of  any 
adjoining  fire  risk,  have  resulted  in  the  at- 
tainment of  a  minimum  fire  hazard,  and  the 
fact  that  the  windows  extend  from  within  a 


FIGS.   44,   45.       NEW   LENS   FACTORY,    AMERICAN    OPTICAL    COM- 
PANY.       INTERIOR     VIEW     SHOWING     APPEARANCE 
BEFORE    AND    AFTER   PAINTING. 

The  difference  in  general  illumination  of  the  interior,  caused  hy 
the  painting  illustrated   in  the  upper  picture,  is  very  marked. 


259 


260  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

few  inches  above  the  floor  (a  condition  con- 
sistent with  the  manufacture  of  a  light  prod- 
uct) up  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ceiling, 
and  from  pilaster  to  pilaster,  assures  the 
best  conditions  for  natural  lighting.  The 
problem  of  heating  has  been  simplified  by 
double-glazing  all  the  windows.  The  entire 
floor  areas  are  available  for  offices,  manufac- 
turing departments,  etc.,  no  limitations  being 
imposed  through  the  presence  of  partitions, 
stairs,  or  other  enclosures  that  would  inter- 
fere with  the  most  efficient  disposition  of  the 
space.  While  utility  was  the  motive  that 
governed  in  the  design  of  this  building,  yet 
I  think  it  will  be  generally  conceded  that  an 
exceedingly  satisfactory  and  pleasing  ap- 
pearance is  presented  by  the  exterior,  the 
simplicity  of  the  treatment  being  in  thorough 
keeping  with  the  uses  for  which  the  building 
is  intended. 

A  tunnel,  10  feet  wide,  8  feet  high  and 
about  1,500  feet  long,  extends  from  the 
power  plant  shown  at  the  right  of  Figure  38 
to  the  main  plant,  passing  directly  under  the 
lens  building  just  described.  As  the  main 
building  is  separated  from  the  lens  building 
by  a  stream,  the  passageway  emerges  from 
the  ground  and  spans  the  stream,  entering 


FIGS.  46,  47. 


NEW   AND   OLD  LAYOUT  OF  PRESS  ROOM,   AMERI- 
CAN   OPTICAL    COMPANY. 


262  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  main  plant  above  grade.  The  main  ob- 
ject of  the  tunnel  is  to  carry  the  water  and 
heating  pipes  and  the  light  and  power 
wiring. 

All  the  features  that  have  been  touched 
upon  so  far  in  connection  with  the  plant  of 
the  American  Optical  Company  are  governed 
only  along  very  broad  lines,  by  the  special 
requirements  of  this  particular  manufactur- 
ing work.  If  the  methods  that  have  been 
worked  out  by  the  American  Optical  Com- 
pany for  their  own  buildings  are  efficient  for 
their  purpose,  they  are  equally  suitable  for 
many  other  lines  of  light  manufacturing 
work.  Each  manufacturer,  however,  must 
make  provision  which  is  wholly  special  in 
many  particulars  for  the  actual  work  that 
he  intends  to  do.  However,  even  in  this  re- 
gard there  are  certain  matters,  such  as  the 
provision  for  artificial  illumination,  method 
of  driving  the  equipment,  the  manner  of  lay- 
ing out  work  benches,  etc.,  which  present  the 
same  essential  requirements  irrespective  of 
the  industry.  Figures  46  and  47  show  the 
old  and  present  methods  of  driving  certain 
equipment  in  the  plant  of  the  American  Opti- 
cal Company,  and  also  exemplify  the  prac- 
tices of  laying  out  benches  during  the  re- 


CHARACTERISTIC     MODERN    EXAMPLES  263 

spective  periods.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell 
upon  the  desirability  of  eliminating  over- 
head line  and  countershafts,  for  at  this  time 
these  are  generally  appreciated.  The  layout 
of  benches  illustrated  in  Figure  47  is,  how- 
ever, a  departure  that  is  comparatively  new 
and  possesses  many  decided  economic  ad- 
vantages. Better  natural  lighting  is  secured, 
a  greater  number  of  operators  can  be  prop- 
erly accommodated  within  a  given  area,  the 
product  can  be  handed  to  and  from  the  oper- 
ators with  greater  facility,. and  by  having  all 
the  operators  face  in  one  direction,  a  more 
strict  attention  to  their  work  is  automatically 
secured.  Individual  lights  are  provided  for 
each  operator.  They  are  mounted  upon 
suitable  stands  connected  by  a  flexible  cord 
and  attachment  to  the  circuit,  which  is  in  con- 
duit and  made  fast  to  the  backs  of  the 
benches.  There  are  many  other  features  in 
regard  to  the  equipment  of  the  plant  that  I 
would  like  to  mention,  but  those  just  referred 
to  serve  as  good  illustrations  as  they  are 
thoroughly  characteristic.  An  interior  view 
of  one  of  the  main  office  departments  is  shown 
in  Figure  48. 

While  I  have  described  very  briefly  the 
evolution  that  marks  the  gradual  perfection 


264: 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 


FIG.     48.        INTERIOR     VIEW     OF     ONE     OF     THE     MAIN     OFFICE 
DEPARTMENTS,    AMERICAN    OPTICAL    COMPANY. 

of  the  buildings  that  from  time  to  time  have 
composed  the  plant  of  the  American  Optical 
Company,  yet  it  must  be  apparent  to  the 
reader  that  this  development  could  never 
have  taken  place  were  it  not  for  the  unceas- 
ing attention  to  all  the  problems  involved 
and  ability  shown  in  their  solution  upon  the 
part  of  the  men  at  the  head  of  this  business. 
I  feel  especially  indebted  to  them  for  mak- 
ing available  the  material  that  I  have  used, 
and  wish  to  take  this  occasion  to  thank  them 
for  the  co-operation  that  they  accorded  me. 


CHAPTER  XI 

VALUE    OF   AN   ENGINEERING   ORGANIZA- 
TION TO  THE  PROJECT 

ONE  of  the  primary  purposes  of  this  book 
is  to  emphasize  that  the  efficiency  of 
any  industrial  establishment,  in  the  final 
analysis,  is  governed  to  no  small  extent  by 
the  effectiveness  of  the  work  done  prior  to 
the  actual  commencement  of  building  opera- 
tions ;  therefore,  neither  the  need  for  speedy 
completion  nor  any  other  consideration  can 
be  of  such  importance  as  to  justify  superfi- 
cial attention  to  this  preliminary  determina- 
tion, although  frequently  progress  must  be 
expedited  by  every  known  means. 

It  is  evident  that,  while  many  of  the  con- 
siderations arising  in  the  construction  of  in- 
dustrial plants  are  wholly  special  to  the  busi- 
ness that  is  to  be  provided  for,  there  are  in 
addition  many  factors  which  do  not  enter 
directly  into  the  routine  management  of  the 
business,  but  are  of  the  utmost  importance 
265 


266  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

when  planning  the  new  plant.  Most  of  these 
are  fundamental  to  the  laying  out  of  all  kinds 
of  industrial  plants,  and  are,  therefore,  thor- 
oughly understood  by  competent  industrial 
engineering  organizations.  Consequently,  if 
the  plant  or  extension  that  is  to  be  built  is 
to  house  other  than  the  simplest  kind  of 
work,  the  best  results  can  be  secured  only 
through  the  joint  services  of  those  who  will 
have  to  do  with  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness after  the  plant  has  been  completed,  and 
the  members  of  an  engineering  organization 
trained  for  this  particular  service. 

Further,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  pre- 
liminary work,  the  control  and  direction  of 
the  co-operative  service  rendered  by  the 
owner  and  the  engineers  should  be  vested 
in  one  of  the  members  of  the  latter  organi- 
zation, so  centering  in  one  man  responsibility 
for  the  conduct  of  the  entire  operation.  The 
engineering  company  should  assume  this  re- 
sponsibility because  its  management  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  the  work  in  question,  and  also  because 
the  managers  of  the  prospective  plant,  in 
most  cases,  should  be  relieved  of  all  detail 
so  that  they  can  properly  look  after  their 
routine  duties,  which  are  usually  particularly 


VALUE  OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION    267 

exacting  when  a  new  plant  or  large  extension 
is  being  built. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
elaborate  upon  the  functions  that  should  be 
performed  by  an  engineering  organization 
specializing  upon  the  service  we  are  consid- 
ering. Further,  certain  other  pertinent  mat- 
ters bearing  upon  this  question  are  dealt 
with  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  question  of  financing  the  construction 
work  usually  follows  immediately  after  the 
completion  of  the  preliminary  service,  so  it 
will  be  desirable  to  give  brief  consideration 
to  this  phase  of  the  subject  with  a  view  to 
determining  its  bearing  upon  the  work  of  the 
engineers. 

As  a  rule,  those  proposing  to  build  exten- 
sions to  existing  properties  or  entirely  new 
industrial  plants  have  available  in  advance 
(or  are,  at  least,  in  a  position  to  make  ar- 
rangements for)  certain  sums  of  money 
which,  with  the  information  at  hand,  they 
believe  to  be  sufficient  for  the  work.  Neces- 
sarily, however,  final  arrangements  cannot 
be  made  intelligently  until  the  preliminary 
service  has  progressed  to  the  point  where 
final  estimates  are  prepared. 


268  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

It  is  seldom  that  the  industrial  engineer  is 
engaged  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
paring a  report  to  be  used  as  a  means  of 
interesting  outside  capital,  although  when  it 
is  found  that  the  expenditure  that  should  be 
made  is  in  excess  of  the  anticipated  require- 
ments, a  concise  report  written  by  impartial 
experts  frequently  enables  the  principals  to 
provide  readily  for  the  requisite  amount 
through  interests  that  would  not  co-operate 
if  the  facts  were  presented  in  a  manner  less 
specific. 

It  should  not  be  expected,  however,  that 
the  engineering  organization  will  take  a  di- 
rect part  in  financing  industrial  enterprises, 
although  occasionally  this  is  expected  owing 
to  the  precedent  that  has  been  established 
by  engineers  who  specialize  on  public-service 
operations.  The  two  classes  of  work  are  in 
no  wise  comparable,  at  least  insofar  as 
financing  is  concerned,  and  the  services  of  the 
industrial  engineering  organization  should 
be  confined  strictly  to  matters  covered  by 
the  preceding  chapters.  In  other  words,  as 
engineers  are  not  in  a  position  to  guarantee 
earnings,  they  should  not  be  expected  to  as- 
sume the  responsibility  incident  to  interest- 
ing outside  capital.  The  engineers  are,  of 


VALUE   OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION    269 

course,  responsible  for  the  potential  possi- 
bilities of  the  plant  provided  under  their 
direct  supervision,  but  their  engagement  is 
invariably  terminated  upon  the  completion 
of  the  plant,  so  they  can  in  no  wise  control 
the  results  of  operation.  In  contrast  to  this 
condition,  there  are  engineering  organiza- 
tions who  perform  all  preliminary  and  detail 
work  required  in  connection  with  public- 
service  plants,  and  in  addition  operate  the 
properties  they  have  built.  When  they  ac- 
cept responsibility  for  all  these  functions 
their  interest  becomes,  in  a  certain  sense, 
that  of  engineer  and  owner  jointly,  and  the 
opportunity  is  afforded  to  substantiate  their 
own  predictions  as  to  gross  income,  operat- 
ing expenses,  etc.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, if  it  is  desirable,  the  engineer  can 
rightly  take  a  hand  in  the  financing  of  new 
work. 

I  have  dwelt  upon  the  above  only  for  the 
purpose  of  emphasizing  an  /understanding 
that  should  be  primarily  established  as  a 
basis  for  any  arrangement  covering  the  em- 
ployment of  professional  men:  namely,  that 
the  limits  of  responsibility  for  the  securing 
of  results  by  a  certain  procedure  should  be 
clearly  defined,  the  responsibility  ceasing 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

with  the  surrender  of  the  control  of  matters 
upon  which  the  predicted  results  depend. 
The  confidence  that  must  necessarily  be 
placed  in  engineering  organizations  by  those 
employing  them  for  preliminary  industrial 
work  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  their  re- 
commendations are  accepted  with  the  knowl- 
edge that  it  will  be  the  owner's  responsibility 
to  prove  during  subsequent  operations  the 
correctness  of  the  plant  in  all  its  details. 

The  brief  manner  in  which  it  has  been  ne- 
cessary to  touch  upon  the  method  of  prepar- 
ing detail  plans  and  specifications  required 
in  connection  with  the  building  of  industrial 
plants  is  likely  to  give  a  quite  inadequate 
understanding  as  to  the  character  of  the 
service  in  question,  except  to  those  who  are 
to  some  extent  familiar  with  the  work.  It 
is  not  necessary,  however,  for  those  who  in- 
tend to  build  an  industrial  plant  or  to  ex- 
tend an  existing  property  to  be  familiar  with 
the  manner  in  which  each  of  the  engineering 
details  should  be  cared  for,  but  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  they  should  be  prop- 
erly advised  as  to  the  general  procedure  that 
will  bring  about  an  efficient  result;  that  is, 
to  whom  the  work  of  preparing  detail  plans 
and  specifications  should  be  entrusted. 


VALUE  OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION    271 

While  the  value  of  the  services  of  engi- 
neers in  connection  with  the  preliminary 
work  has  not  received  pronounced  recogni- 
tion until  within  the  past  few  years,  it  has 
for  a  long  time  been  customary  to  engage 
architects  for  the  purpose  of  having  pre- 
pared building  plans  and  specifications,  and 
engineers  have  been  employed  almost  as  gen- 
erally in  connection  with  the  purchase  and 
installation  of  equipment  for  lighting,  heat- 
ing, and  power  purposes.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  architecture,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  usually  plays  a  minor  part  in  connec- 
tion with  the  building  of  an  industrial  plant, 
as  all  matters  having  to  do  with  the  integrity 
of  the  structures  are  purely  engineering  con- 
siderations. If  an  architect  is  competent  to 
handle  the  work  that  we  have  under  consid- 
eration, it  is  because  his  organization  com- 
prises engineers  possessing  the  training  and 
experience  which  the  operation  necessitates, 
or  that  he  associates  with  engineers  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  this  end.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  engineering  organization  fitted  for 
the  proper  performance  of  this  work  must 
either  include  among  its  members  one  or 
more  competent  architects,  or  depend  upon 
their  ability  to  secure  the  co-operation  of 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

architects  practicing  independently.  How- 
ever, engineering  companies,  as  they  attain 
reasonable  proportions,  invariably  find  that 
their  work  can  be  efficiently  handled  only 
through  the  inclusion  in  their  own  ranks  of 
all  the  various  kinds  of  ability  demanded  for 
the  complete  performance  of  the  majority  of 
commissions  secured,  so  that  it  should  be  as- 
sumed that  the  term  "Engineering  Organi- 
zation "  includes,  as  one  of  the  contemplated 
functions,  the  performance  of  such  architec- 
tural service  as  enters  into  industrial  opera- 
tions. 

Occasionally  an  industrial  company  that 
maintains  a  designing  department,  as  a  reg- 
.  ular  part  of  its  organization,  decides  to  pre- 
pare through  its  own  force  the  plans  and 
specifications  required  for  an  addition  to  its 
plant,  believing  that  its  needs  can  be  effi- 
ciently cared  for  by  merely  augmenting  its 
staff.  As  this  view  is  now  but  rarely  evi- 
denced, time  would  not  be  taken  to  point  out 
wherein  it  is  fundamentally  in  error  were  it 
not  that  by  so  doing  it  is  possible  to  make 
more  clear  the  administrative  conditions  nec- 
essary for  the  efficient  handling  of  the  work. 

In  the  first  place,  the  designing  depart- 
ment or  drafting  room  required  by  a  manu- 


VALUE   OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION 

facturing  company  operates  under  condi- 
tions that  are  radically  different  from  those 
governing  the  administration  of  the  same  de- 
partment of  a  company  organized  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  handling  miscellaneous 
engineering  operations,  so  that  while  the  em- 
ployment of  engineers  or  draftsmen  familiar 
with  building  work  may  provide  a  part  at 
least  of  the  technical  and  possibly  practical 
knowledge  that  is  required,  it  does  not  pro- 
vide that  much  more  essential  element  which 
can  be  described  as  an  efficient  organization 
for  control.  Of  course,  the  owners  may  to 
some  extent  appreciate  this  fact  and  so  start 
out  with  the  intention  of  employing  a  first- 
class  man  to  take  charge  of  the  work  in  its 
entirety.  If  by  chance  they  are  successful  in 
this,  the  man  so  engaged  will  insist  upon  en- 
tire control  in  accordance  with  his  own  views, 
so  that  the  owners,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, will  have  engaged  an  engineering  or- 
ganization, but  one  which  cannot  bring  to 
bear  upon  the  solution  of  their  problems  the 
advantages  of  the  data  and  systematic  co- 
operation that  would  be  available  if  they  en- 
gaged an  established  engineering  firm. 

It  may  be  asked  why  the  industrial  com- 
pany should  be  considered  incapable  of  eco- 


INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

nomically  preparing  its  own  detail  plans  and 
specifications,  and  my  answer  would  be 
briefly  as  follows :  the  entire  scope  of  experi- 
ence which  the  management  of  the  industrial 
company  can  bring  to  bear  upon  the  problem 
is  incorporated  in  the  conclusions  resulting 
from  the  preliminary  work.  The  prepara- 
tion of  detail  plans  and  specifications  is  a 
matter  wholly  outside  of  the  specialty  in 
which  they  are  engaged,  so  they  are  handi- 
capped at  the  very  beginning  through  their 
inability  to  judge  as  to  the  competency  of 
the  men  they  employ,  and  they  are  equally 
unable  to  check  properly  the  value  of  the 
work  that  is  done.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
industrial  company  decides  to  engage  an  en- 
gineering organization,  no  attempt  need  be 
made  to  determine  the  ability  of  the  individ- 
uals composing  the  various  organizations 
under  consideration,  but  decision  must  neces- 
sarily be  based  upon  an  investigation  of  their 
work  for  others. 

Assuming,  however,  that  engineers  and 
draftsmen  are  engaged  first  hand  by  the  in- 
dustrial company,  let  us  consider  their  proba- 
ble environment  They  will  find  that  the  ex- 
isting designing  force,  if  there  is  one,  is  per- 
forming work  which  is  in  a  certain  sense 


VALUE   OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION 

quite  independent  of  the  routine  manufac- 
ture performed  in  the  plant,  this  being  more 
true  as  the  manufacturing  work  is  more 
nearly  repetitive  in  character.  The  design- 
ers are  usually  working  upon  modifications 
of  the  output  which  the  company  expects  to 
place  on  the  market  at  some  future  date  with 
a  view  to  improving  its  character,  reducing 
its  cost,  or  both,  and  the  drawings  are  neces- 
sarily made  the  subject  of  minute  discussion 
upon  the  part  of  all  the  principals  and  de- 
partment heads.  Drafting-room  expense 
which  at  first  sight  might  appear  to  be  exor- 
bitant may  in  reality  be  more  than  justified 
through  the  enormous  repetition  of  an  incre- 
ment in  saving.  The  conditions  in  regard  to 
the  work  for  which  the  new  men  are  em- 
ployed are,  in  many  respects,  diametrically 
opposed  to  those  just  defined.  Insofar  as  the 
buildings  proper  are  concerned,  it  is  only  the 
big  things  (which  are  readily  evident,  and 
all  defined  by  the  preliminary  work),  that 
bear  upon  economy  of  future  operation,  and 
such  minute  attention  to  details  as  is  usual 
with  the  designer  employed  by  an  industrial 
company  is  wholly  unwarranted.  By  this  I 
do  not  mean  that  the  work  can  in  any  way 
be  slighted,  but  rather  that  the  members  of 


276  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

an  engineering  company  organized  for  the 
designing  of  new  plants  are  trained  to  un- 
derstand that  designs  which  are  for  some- 
thing that  has  never  been  built  before,  and 
will  probably  never  be  used  again,  must  be 
made  right  the  first  time,  and  it  is  the  pro- 
vince of  the  engineers  to  define  the  limits  of 
accuracy  that  are  appropriate  for  each  case. 
Now,  it  is  just  at  this  point  that  the  indus- 
trial organization  attempting  to  do  its  own 
work  becomes  involved  in  needless  confusion 
and  expense.  Irrespective  of  the  training 
that  the  draftsman  engaged  for  the  purpose 
may  have  had,  the  chief  engineer  or  chief 
draftsman  will  unconsciously  endeavor  to 
apply  his  customary  methods ;  and  in  this  he 
is  at  a  further  disadvantage  through  his  lack 
of  familiarity  with  the  methods  and  practices 
of  the  shops  that  will  be  called  upon  to  build 
the  parts  that  are  being  designed.  It  is  es- 
pecially hard  for  him  to  acquire  the  mental 
attitude  that  permeates  the  successful  engi- 
neering organization,  and  springs  from  the 
knowledge  that  as  long  as  the  work  is  in  the 
drawing  room,  the  field  work  is  wholly  or 
partially  delayed.  In  fact,  the  habit  of  dis- 
cussion and  revision  is  so  much  a  part  of 
industrial  management  that  it  is  frequently 


VALUE   OF  THE  ENGINEERING  ORGANIZATION    277 

responsible    for  the    expenditure   of  weeks 
where  as  many  days  should  be  sufficient. 

We  need  not  at  this  time  discuss  further 
the  advisability  of  engaging  engineering  spe- 
cialists for  the  purpose  of  preparing  detail 
plans  and  specifications  for  industrial  plants. 
If  any  of  my  readers  are  particularly  inter- 
ested in  this  matter,  they  should  read  the 
admirable  article  published  in  the  May,  1908, 
issue  of  THE  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE,  written 
by  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Bailey.  In  criticism  of 
the  practice  of  industrials  who  design  and 
build  their  own  plants,  Mr.  Bailey  concludes : 

Such  a  system,  of  course,  will  eventually  hang 
itself.  Plants  will  finally  cost  so  much  to  build  that 
they  cannot  be  operated  at  the  profit  which  com- 
petitors make.  Finally,  perhaps  upon  the  consolida- 
tion of  several  plants,  a  broader  view  of  specializa- 
tion will  come  to  those  in  control,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  true  economy  lies  in  letting  engineers 
build  the  plants,  while  operators  confine  themselves 
to  operating  them. 


CHAPTER  XII 

COMPENSATION   FOR   ENGINEERING   AND 
CONSTRUCTION  SERVICE 

E  A  SONS  have  been  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding  chapters  why  industrial  mana- 
gers who  propose  to  build  new  plants  or  ex- 
tend existing  properties  should  secure  the 
co-operation  of  an  engineering  organization 
proficient  in  this  respect. 

There  is  no  way  of  accurately  estimating 
the  amount  of  time  that  will  be  required  for 
the  preliminary  work  on  the  part  of  experts, 
as  every  commission  presents  different  con- 
ditions as  to  the  basic  data  that  have  been 
compiled  and  the  thought  that  has  been  de- 
voted to  the  questions  at  issue  prior  to  the 
engagement  of  such  specialists.  The  investi- 
gations made  at  this  time  may  lead  to  a 
prompt  solution,  or  they  may  develop  a  com- 
plex situation  necessitating  much  research 
and  the  consideration  of  a  number  of  alter-' 
nate  plans.  Therefore,  the  charge  for  pre- 
278 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE      279 

liminary  industrial  work  performed  by  en- 
gineering organizations  can  be  made  equita- 
bly only  upon  a  basis  of  the  actual  time  re- 
quired for  its  performance,  daily  rates  being 
agreed  upon  in  advance  covering  the  services 
of  the  engineers  who  are  needed.  Industrial 
managers  at  times  take  exception  to  the 
rates  which  an  engineering  organization 
must  charge  for  this  work  in  order  to  make 
it  yield  a  profit.  They  are  primarily  familiar 
with  the  sale  of  a  product  that  can  be 
weighed  on  a  balance  or  measured  with  a 
rule,  and  on  account  of  the  manufacture  in 
large  lots,  the  labor  charge  per  unit  for  the 
initial  creative  work  that  made  the  article 
possible  is  either  practically  negligible  or  is 
not  taken  into  account.  As  the  engineers' 
conclusions  are  made  clear  through  the  me- 
dium of  reports  and  blue  prints,  which  in 
themselves  cost  but  a  trifling  sum,  those  who 
contemplate  the  employment  of  engineering 
experts  are  apt  to  jump  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  daily  rates  represent  clear  profit. 
While  they  are  familiar  with  the  overhead 
expenses  that  occur  through  the  conduct  of 
their  own  business,  they  cannot  see  any  rea- 
son why  expenses  of  this  character,  compara- 
ble with  their  own,  should  be  incurred  by  an 


280  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

engineering  organization.  This  view  comes 
about  through  their  failure  to  comprehend 
the  gap  that  exists  between  the  consulting 
engineer  of  the  old  school  and  the  highly  per- 
fected engineering  organization  of  today, 
employing  possibly  from  fifty  to  several  hun- 
dred men  in  office  departments  alone.  The 
actual  facts  are  that  the  overhead  expenses 
of  such  an  engineering  organization  as  we 
have  under  consideration  will  amount  to 
about  100  per  cent  on  productive  wages  when 
extremely  favorable  conditions  hold.  This 
figure  is  given  authoritatively  as  a  result  of 
inquiry  among  leading  firms.  Insofar  as  the 
owner  or  client  is  concerned,  however,  this 
expense  should  be  considered  to  be  almost  as 
productive  as  the  direct  wages  paid  to  men 
engaged  on  his  work,  as  it  goes  to  provide 
all  the  facilities  and  means  that  enhance 
many  fold  the  knowledge  and  experience  of 
the  very  men  who  are  working  in  his  inter- 
ests. It  maintains  a  statistical  department 
that  assures  to  each  client  not  only  the  bene- 
fit arising  through  all  other  work  done  within 
the  organization,  but  advantages  that  follow 
ready  reference  to  the  work  of  others.  The 
average  owner  does  not  realize  that  if  it  were 
not  for  the  enormous  fund  of  data  that  engi- 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE     281 

neering  organizations  have  compiled  at  the 
expense  of  much  time,  they  could  not  begin 
to  complete  their  respective  commissions 
anything  like  as  promptly  or  effectively  as 
they  do.  The  housing  of  a  large  staff  of  men 
for  this  work  involves  heavy  expenses,  but  it 
is  through  the  fact  that  all  kinds  of  ability 
and  experience  are  available  within  the  same 
office,  that  the  organization  possesses  a  value 
to  its  clients  that  could  not  be  secured  by 
independent  workers.  Those  who  have  en- 
deavored to  carry  out  large  undertakings 
through  engaging  a  number  of  independent 
specialists  are  usually  willing  to  testify  to 
the  difficulties  and  delays  that  arise.  Conse- 
quently, we  see  that  while  the  owner  might 
by  chance  be  successful  in  employing  directly 
one  or  more  engineers  of  unquestioned  com- 
petency, he  can  never  hope  to  secure  those 
necessary  adjuncts  which  form  the  backbone 
and  fiber  of  the  engineering  organization,  the 
maintenance  of  which  creates  the  overhead 
charge. 

Now  to  put  it  squarely,  I  ask  those  who 
are  responsible  for  the  planning  and  build- 
ing of  a  large  industrial  plant:  "Are  you 
willing  to  entrust  the  preliminary  service, 
upon  which  the  ultimate  success  of  your  en- 


282  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

tire  enterprise  is  to  no  small  extent  depend- 
ent, to  men  whose  training,  experience,  abil- 
ity, and  initiative  have  not  brought  them  to 
a  point  where  they  command  salaries  of  at 
least  $5,000,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  $17  per 
working  day?"  If  you  are  not,  then  you 
must  add  to  this  an  additional  $17  for  over- 
head expenses,  making  the  total  cost  $34  per 
day,  so  that  if  the  owner  pays  $50  a  day  for 
the  services  of  such  a  man,  the  profit  to  the 
engineering  organization  cannot  possibly  ex- 
ceed $16.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  in  even  busy 
periods  such  a  man's  work  cannot  be  ar- 
ranged so  that  he  is  engaged  at  this  rate  for 
300  days  in  a  year,  and  further  fluctuations 
in  business  result  in  an  average  overhead 
expense,  taking  good  years  with  bad,  more 
nearly  approaching  125  per  cent,  so  that  the 
rate  of  $50  assures  in  reality  but  a  very  small 
margin  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the 
service  rendered,  which  value,  I  wish  to  re- 
peat, springs  principally  from  the  resources 
of  the  organization,  and  not  the  experience 
of  its  individual  members. 

The  recital  of  facts  just  presented  will 
make  it  clear,  it  is  hoped,  that  expert  fees 
ranging  from  $50  to  $150  per  day  may  rep- 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE     283 

resent  only  a  very  modest  profit,  whereas  the 
far-reaching  effect  of  the  services  secured 
through  incurring  such  expense  may  be  such 
that  the  amount  is  wholly  nominal  in  view  of 
resulting  economies  of  operation.  Engineers 
expert  in  public-service  work  have  for  years 
been  receiving  these  rates,  the  actual  amount, 
of  course,  depending  upon  their  experience 
and  standing;  and  certainly  the  preliminary 
work  performed  by  the  industrial  engineer 
is  quite  as  far-reaching  and,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  much  more  involved  than  the  initial 
investigations  pertaining  to  public  service 
properties. 

The  practice  of  making  the  charge  for  the 
preparation  of  detail  plans  and  specifications 
a  percentage  of  the  cost  of  the  operation  has 
long  been  established,  and  insofar  as  building 
work  is  concerned,  this  method  is  practically 
universal.  The  rulings  established  some 
years  ago  by  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects  have  been  adhered  to  generally  by 
competent  architects  and  engineers  who  pre- 
pare such  plans  and  specifications,  and  until 
very  recently  this  schedule  of  charges  was 
briefly  as  follows:  for  entirely  new  work  a 
minimum  commission  of  5  per  cent  of 
the  final  cost  of  the  operation,  which 


284  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

in  special  cases  has  been  lowered  upon 
the  authority  of  the  Institute,  plus  the 
wages  and  expenses  of  one  or  more 
superintendents  of  construction  located  per- 
manently on  the  work,  and  also  traveling  ex- 
penses. This  fee  provides  for  the  making  of 
preliminary  sketches,  preparing  detail  plans 
and  specifications,  securing  bids,  letting  con- 
tracts, and  superintending  construction. 
Three-fifths  of  the  total  fee,  (amounting,  in 
the  case  of  the  minimum,  to  3  per  cent)  is 
for  the  completion  of  the  work  up  to  the  let- 
ting of  contracts,  and  the  remaining  2  per 
cent  is  for  the  latter  service  and  supervision. 
As  the  schedule  was  drawn  specifically  as  a 
basis  for  architect's  fees,  special  rulings 
were  included  providing  that  the  owner 
should  reimburse  the  architect  for  any  ex- 
penses legitimately  incurred  through  engag- 
ing specialists  in  connection  with  equipment 
details  such  as  heating,  ventilating,  and  me- 
chanical, electrical,  and  sanitary  problems. 
Unfortunately,  the  intent  of  those  who  pre- 
pared this  schedule  has  been  widely  departed 
from  through  the  minimum  fee  being  applied 
to  many  cases  in  connection  with  which  a 
larger  fee  would  be  proper  and  should  have 
been  arranged  for. 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE     285 

The  strictly  architectural  work  incident  to 
the  building  of  industrial  plants  is  usually 
subordinate  to  the  engineering  service,  and 
as  engineers  have  never  formulated  a  stand- 
ard schedule  of  charges  for  their  work,  but 
have  been  guided  largely  by  the  rulings  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  the 
matter  of  their  compensation  has  never  been 
authoritatively  established,  and  is  at  present 
in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state. 

I  feel  that  this  book  regarding  the  planning 
and  building  of  industrial  plants  would  not 
be  complete  unless  I  take  up  in  some  detail 
the  conditions  which  on  the  one  hand  have 
resulted  very  recently  in  the  establishment, 
by  the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  of  a 
minimum  fee  of  6  per  cent,  and  which,  fur- 
ther, are  likely  before  long  to  bring  about  the 
formulation  by  engineers  of  a  definite  basis 
of  charges  for  the  preparation  of  plans  and 
specifications  covering  engineering  features. 

While  the  percentage  plan  has  certain  ad- 
vantages through  its  simplicity,  and  the  fact 
that  in  general  it  provides  for  a  sliding  scale 
whereby  the  compensation  increases  with  the 
magnitude  of  the  operation,  yet  as  previ- 
ously mentioned,  through  the  too  general  ac- 
ceptance of  the  minimum  fee  as  a  basis  of 


286  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

compensation  for  work  of  widely  different 
character,  its  application  has  proved  to  be 
very  crude  and  inadequate  as  a  proper  meas- 
ure of  the  actual  expense  incurred. 

The  inconsistency  of  a  charge  based  upon 
a  fixed  percentage,  irrespective  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  operation  (which  was  never  in- 
tended) can  be  made  more  clear  by  citing  a 
few  typical  illustrations.  The  plans  and  spe- 
cifications needed  in  building  plants  for  in- 
dustries which  have  been  largely  standard- 
ized and  require  very  simple  structures,  can 
be  readily  and  economically  prepared  by 
those  specializing  on  such  operations ;  where- 
as many  less  specialized  industries  impose 
unusual  conditions  that  prevent  strict  adher- 
ence to  any  established  precedent.  The  engi- 
neering organization  which  devotes  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  building  of  cement  plants 
or  cotton  mills  arrives  at  certain  clearly  de- 
fined views  as  to  layout  and  design,  and  in 
many  instances  the  only  conditions  presented 
by  a  new  commission  requiring  special  study 
are  those  relating  to  output,  probable  growth, 
and  the  specific  property.  As  a  rule  it  is  the 
number  of  building  units  and  amount  of 
equipment  that  are  chiefly  affected  by  these 
matters,  so  that  construction  details  which 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE      287 

have  become  a  matter  of  record  can  be  di- 
rectly adopted,  and  in  many  cases  the  desired 
result  is  promptly  and  efficiently  obtained 
through  the  modification  of  existing  draw- 
ings and  specifications. 

In  comparison  with  this  illustration  let  us 
consider  the  work  that  must  be  performed  by 
the  engineering  organization  engaged  to  pre- 
pare plans  and  specifications  required  in  con- 
nection with  buildings  and  equipment  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  storage  batteries.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  not  more  than  four 
or  five  concerns  manufacturing  storage  bat- 
teries upon  a  large  scale,  and  it  is  only  at 
wide  intervals  that  the  need  of  building  a 
new  plant  or  large  extension  for  the  accom- 
modation of  this  work  arises.  Therefore  the 
amount  of  business  in  this  particular  field 
available  to  the  architect  or  engineer  is  not 
sufficient  to  permit  of  specialization;  and 
even  if  an  organization  engaged  for  the  pur- 
pose of  designing  such  a  plant  had  formerly 
been  employed  by  another  client  in  the  same 
line  of  business,  a  knowledge  of  the  designs 
made  in  the  former  case  would  probably  be 
of  little  avail.  Radically  different  views  exist 
as  to  many  of  the  primary  features  involved, 
partly  because  different  processes  are  used 


288  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

by  the  various  concerns  in  this  business,  and 
partly  because  the  number  of  plants  that 
have  been  built  is  too  small  to  emphasize  the 
marked  advantage  of  any  one  type  of  struc- 
ture. Of  course,  many  of  the  special  features 
involved  in  such  a  plant  are  thoroughly  con- 
sidered during  the  course  of  the  preliminary 
work,  which  service,  for  our  present  purpose, 
must  be  considered  as  quite  distinct  from 
that  of  preparing  the  details,  plans  and  speci- 
fications. How.ever,  this  industry  presents 
numerous  problems  (one  of  which  is  that  of 
providing  against  the  destructive  action  of 
the  sulphuric-acid  fumes)  which  must  be  kept 
in  mind  when  working  up  the  details.  When 
these  matters  have  not  been  previously  in- 
vestigated, a  large  amount  of  research  may 
be  necessary,  the  results  of  which  may  have 
a  very  important  bearing  upon  matters  of 
design  and  construction.  Then  again,  fre- 
quently many  of  the  smaller  industries  can 
be  most  advantageous!}7  housed  by  accom- 
modating different  departments  in  distinct 
structures,  each  comparatively  small  in  ex- 
tent, and  either  independently  located  or 
merged  together,  but  in  any  case  necessitat- 
ing an  amount  of  engineering  consideration 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  required  to  design  a 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE      289 

standard  building  composed  of  uniform  bays, 
but  requiring  the  same  outlay. 

The  inequality  of  conditions  presented  by 
the  two  broad  classes  to  which  I  have  called 
attention,  is,  however,  wider  than  would  ap- 
pear from  the  above,  for  it  is  customary,  and 
often  necessary,  to  invest  in  cement  plants 
and  cotton  mills  much  more  money  for  build- 
ings and  equipment  than  is  provided  for 
many  of  the  more  miscellaneous  industries. 
Therefore,  there  are  plants  that  to  a  certain 
extent  at  least  have  been  standardized  in 
layout  and  building  and  equipment  details, 
and  at  the  same  time  trade  conditions  are 
such  that  the  provision  of  the  required  fa- 
cilities necessitates  large  expenditures.  A  fee 
that  would  yield  a  proper  profit  for  the  prep- 
aration of  the  plans  and  specifications  under 
such  conditions  would  represent  a  percentage 
of  the  total  cost  that  certainly  would  not  be 
an  equitable  basis  for  the  performance  of  a 
similar  kind  of  work  in  connection  with  the 
provision  of  buildings  for  the  majority  of  in- 
dustries, in  which  the  outlay  necessary  to 
provide  for  customary  output  is  much  less, 
but  the  actual  expense  of  making  detail  plans 
and  specifications  considerably  more. 

While  for  the  present  purpose  it  may  not 


290  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

be  necessary  to  analyze  the  situation  further, 
yet  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  even  for  a 
given  industry  the  expense  involved  in  con- 
nection with  the  preparation  of  plans  and 
specifications  for  new  buildings  and  equip- 
ment does  not  increase  directly  with  the  size 
of  the  operation — that  is,  its  total  cost — but 
at  a  somewhat  lower  rate.  Designing  a  ce- 
ment plant  for  5,000  barrels  per  day  does  not 
necessitate  a  great  deal  more  study  and  draft- 
ing work  than  designing  a  plant  for  2,000 
barrels  per  day,  nor  does  a  storage  battery 
plant  for  an  output  of  200  cells  per  day  re- 
quire a  great  deal  more  designing  work  than 
one  for  25  cells. 

No  differentiation  has  been  made  between 
the  preparation  of  plans  and  specifications 
for  buildings  proper  and  those  needed  in 
connection  with  the  manufacture  and  installa- 
tion of  equipment,  for  in  general  the  same 
line  of  reasoning  applies  in  both  cases.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  equipment  used  in 
industrial  plants  is  built  upon  a  manufactur- 
ing basis,  and  the  engineer's  function  is 
merely  that  of  selecting  the  type  and  make 
that  best  suit  the  requirements.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  cases  where  special  processes 
necessitate  the  use  of  apparatus  which  is  not 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE      291 

available  and  therefore  must  be  designed  and 
built  for  the  purpose.  And  then,  again,  there 
are  requirements  which  can  be  satisfied  in 
part  through  the  use  of  standard  apparatus, 
but  need  also  certain  special  auxiliary  appli- 
ances to  make  the  equipment  complete.  Con- 
sequently the  actual  engineering  expense 
varies  greatly  when  providing  equipment 
which  necessitates  the  preparation  of  speci- 
fications and  suitable  information  to  accom- 
pany them,  together  with  a  proper  consider- 
ation of  the  data  received  with  the  bids.  The 
records  of  an  engineering  organization  hand- 
ling a  wide  range  of  work  show  that  while 
this  expense  may  not  exceed  3  per  cent  when 
purchasing  standard  industrial  apparatus 
and  power-plant  equipment,  it  frequently 
runs  up  to  15  or  20  per  cent,  and  occasionally 
much  higher,  when  detail  designs  must  be 
made  for  apparatus  that  is  wholly  or  in  part 
original  in  its  conception. 

A  proper  recognition  of  the  conditions  to 
which  reference  has  been  made  must  convince 
the  owner,  architect,  and  engineer  that  a 
given  percentage,  irrespective  of  its  amount, 
cannot  be  expected  to  provide  equitable  com- 
pensation for  all  classes  of  work.  The  ma- 
jority of  owners,  of  course,  are  quite  unfa- 


292  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

miliar  with  the  character  of  work  required 
on  the  part  of  the  architect  or  engineer  in 
order  to  render  efficient  service,  and  they 
have  even  less  knowledge  of  the  cost  incurred 
through  its  performance,  nor  can  it  be  ex- 
pected that  conditions  should  be  otherwise. 
They  should  realize,  however,  that  the  very 
nature  of  the  service  is  such  that  any  condi- 
tions that  tend  to  establish  an  incentive  for 
superficial  work  may  prove  most  damaging 
in  the  ultimate  result. 

Competitive  conditions  among  architects 
and  engineers,  together  with  this  lack  of 
knowledge  upon  the  part  of  owners,  have  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  a  fixed  percent- 
age fee,  which,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  will 
assure  a  profit  only  when  expenses  are  mini- 
mized through  the  adoption  of  a  procedure 
that  is  detrimental  to  the  owner's  best  inter- 
est. Evidences  of  this  are  numerous,  the 
most  prominent  illustrations  being  the  trans- 
fer of  the  preparation  of  plans  and  specifica- 
tions from  the  office  of  the  architect  or  the 
engineer  to  the  office  of  the  contractor  or 
manufacturer.  The  contractor,  of  course, 
urges  the  adoption  of  this  method  as  it  places 
him  in  a  somewhat  more  advantageous  posi- 
tion when  bids  are  solicited,  and  in  some 


COMPENSATION  FOR  ENGINEERING  SERVICE      293 

cases  by  this  means  he  is  able  to  eliminate 
competition  entirely.  This  refers,  of  course, 
to  such  features  of  the  work  as  should  be 
cared  for,  without  doubt,  in  the  office  of  the 
architect  or  engineer.  The  primary  object  in 
preparing  detail  plans  and  specifications,  in 
the  manner  outlined  in  a  previous  chapter,  is 
to  define  clearly  the  character  of  the  struc- 
ture or  apparatus  desired,  and  to  establish 
an  impartial  basis  for  competition.  When 
the  contractors  or  bidders  make  their  own 
plans  and  specifications  for  such  matters  as 
structural  steel  work,  piping  systems,  etc., 
comparison  of  performance,  and  therefore  of 
prices,  is  frequently  very  difficult.  Further, 
the  contractor  includes  in  his  bid  an  amount 
for  the  preparation  of  such  plans  and  speci- 
fications so  that  ostensibly  the  owner  is  pay- 
ing for  the  work  twice.  On  the  other  hand, 
architects  and  engineers  as  a  class  have  been 
forced  into  this  position  through  their  lack  of 
aggressive  and  united  action.  Analysis  of 
the  records  of  such  firms  as  have  been  able  to 
create  profitable  businesses  without  sacrific- 
ing thoroughness  invariably  shows  that,  upon 
a  5  per  cent  basis,  the  cost  of  much  of  their 
work  amounts  to,  or  even  exceeds,  the  figure 
that  this  commission  will  realize.  It  is  only 


294  INDUSTRIAL  PLANTS 

the  large  and  comparatively  simple  opera- 
tions that  can  be  made  to  yield  a  reasonable 
profit  on  a  5  per  cent  basis. 

Fortunately  this  condition  has  been  par- 
tially corrected  through  the  action  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Architects  establish- 
ing a  minimum  fee  of  6  per  cent  above  re- 
ferred to;  but  a  relationship  between  owner 
and  architect  or  engineer  tending  to  promote 
efficient  service  will  not  be  attained  until  the 
conditions  that  have  been  outlined  are  prop- 
erly appreciated,  and  until  owners  recognize 
that  when  arranging  for  such  service  as  we 
have  had  under  consideration,  their  interest 
will  be  best  served  through  carefully  consid- 
ering all  reasons  that  may  be  advanced  in 
justification  of  a  given  commission.  This  is 
especially  true  if  the  amount  of  the  commis- 
sion happens  to  be  in  excess  of  the  minimum, 
owing  to  the  belief  on  the  part  of  the  archi- 
tect or  engineer  that  the  conditions  are  such 
as  to  necessitate  a  special  charge. 


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